Keyhole Wall Research Articles

Modeling and simulation of keyhole-based welding as multi-domain problem using the extended finite element method

In this article, we demonstrate the flexibility of a multi-domain approach combined with the extended finite element method by addressing the modeling and simulation of keyhole-based welding. The welding process is modeled by the heat equation where the keyhole geometry and the interface separating molten and solid area are represented by two independent level set functions, separating the domain into three time-dependent subdomains. The keyhole shape is computed by an analytical approach based on the energy balance at the keyhole wall and its shape is assumed to be fixed. The solid-liquid interface is considered as free boundary whose evolution is described by the two-phase Stefan problem. The coupled problem including the two discontinuities is solved using a multi-domain XFEM implementation. The simulated results are shown together with experimental data on different welded materials.

Effects of Mg content on keyhole behaviour during deep penetration laser welding of Al-Mg alloys

This paper concerns the effects of Mg content on keyhole behaviours during the laser welding process of 5754, 5083 and 5A06 Al-Mg alloys. The features of the vapour plume and keyhole area are extracted from high-speed images with image processing methods. The increase of Mg content leads to the increase of hydrodynamic pressure caused by metal evaporation and decrease of surface tension acting on the keyhole wall. The strong metal evaporation and decrease of surface tension help the formation of keyhole, which both result in a large size of keyhole with deep penetration and low frequency of keyhole collapse. However, the impact of metal vapour could be enhanced by the increase of evaporation and the decrease of both surface tension and viscosity, which leads to the frequent generation of swelling at the rear weldpool and poor formation of the weld bead.

Numerical and experimental investigation of keyholing process in ultrasonic vibration assisted plasma arc welding

To improve the keyholing capability and welding efficiency, ultrasonic vibration assisted plasma arc welding (U-PAW) is developed by connecting the specially manufactured ultrasonic horn with the tungsten electrode. The ultrasound pressure in the plasma arc is considered to derive a formula for calculating the plasma arc pressure on anode in U-PAW. A transient model of U-PAW process is developed with accounting for the dynamic variation of both heat flux and arc pressure distribution on the curved keyhole wall. The weld pool and keyhole behaviors are numerically simulated to predict the fluid flow and heat transfer as well as the dynamic keyhole evolution in U-PAW. It is found that the exerted ultrasonic vibration increases the plasma arc pressure so that open keyhole can be established at lower welding current and higher welding speed in U-PAW. The experimental observation validates the numerical simulation results.

Simulations of deep drilling of metals by continuous wave lasers using combined smoothed particle hydrodynamics and ray-tracing methods

A robust numerical method based on smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) is used to investigate the melt pool expulsion mechanism during high-aspect ratio laser drilling of two different materials: aluminum and 316L stainless steel. The computational model is validated with previously published results which show extremely close matches. The ray-tracing method is combined with SPH method which makes the model capable of taking into account the multiple reflections of laser radiations from the keyhole wall. The drilling velocity is found to be a non-linear function of time, which is dependent on the shape of the heated surface. For a flat surface, the drilling velocity is small, but after the cavity is formed and multiple reflections of laser radiations become significant, the drilling velocity strongly increases. The main driving force of melt expulsion is the repulsive force produced by vapor pressure. The Marangoni stresses are found to provide marginal effect on melt expulsion during deep drilling.

Metal flow of weld pool and keyhole evolution in gas focusing plasma arc welding

Establishing an open keyhole throughout work-piece is the key to penetrate work-piece fully in gas focusing plasma arc welding. In order to study heat transfer, metal flow and keyhole surface evolution in gas focusing plasma arc welding, the three dimensional mathematical model is developed. Arc heat model and plasma arc pressure model are used to describe heat and force action in gas focusing plasma arc welding. Temperature field, fluid flow in weld pool and keyhole evolution are simulated. It is found that metal in weld pool front flows bypass keyhole wall toward weld pool back. Center line of keyhole channel is crocked instead of going along z-axis. The calculated weld shape agrees with the experimental data basically. This work may enrich theoretical knowledge about the complicated thermal physical process and provide basic data to guide welding application in gas focusing plasma arc welding.

Numerical study of keyhole behaviors and thermal fluid flow in high current plasma arc welding

A fully coupled plasma arc-keyhole-weld pool model was developed to investigate the keyhole behaviors and thermal fluid flow in high current plasma arc welding. The relationship between the forces distribution and fluid flow patterns was revealed. Owing to a constraint effect of the water cooling nozzle, the plasma arc flows downward with high energy and momentum, so a large keyhole forms. Inside the keyhole, the plasma arc mainly flows downward, and very few plasma arc flows upward along the keyhole wall. At the top surface of the keyhole, the plasma arc flows outward. The dominant downward plasma shear stress and negative arc pressure in the z direction cause a dominant anti-clockwise eddy in the weld pool. The outward plasma arc shear stress on the top weld pool surface causes a small clockwise eddy in the weld pool.

Numerical study of additional element transport in wire feed laser beam welding

The transport phenomena in the wire feed laser beam welding are investigated numerically. A three-dimensional transient heat transfer and fluid flow model coupled with free surface tracing and element transport is developed. A ray-tracing method with local grid refinement algorithm is used to calculate the multiple reflections and Fresnel absorption on the keyhole wall. The filler material flows backward along the lateral side of the weld pool, and subsequently flows forward along the longitudinal plane. The occurrence of the bulging phenomenon may further prevent the downward transfer of the additional elements to the root of the weld pool.

Study of molten pool dynamics and porosity formation mechanism in full penetration fiber laser welding of Al-alloy

To study molten pool dynamics, root hump formation, periodic keyhole behavior in full penetration laser welding (FPLW) of aluminum alloy, a numerical simulation was carried out, in which volume of fluid (VOF) method and ray-tracing algorithm were adopted. A varied metallic vapor shear stress model was considered. Meanwhile a series of welding experiments on specimens being composed of aluminum alloy and quartz glass were conducted to analyze the porosity formation process. It was found that the over-heated sagging with low surface tension stagnated at the bottom side and solidified to form root hump. The dominant backward heat convection at the lower part can well explain the extreme spreading of molten pool at bottom surface. Periodic behavior of the keyhole was identified during quasi-steady stage. The porosity can be effectively suppressed in FPLW. Both the porosity ratio and average porosity number were reduced obviously. The main mechanism of porosity formation in FPLW is the collapse of the rear keyhole wall, mainly caused by bulges on the front keyhole wall. Bubble coalescence is responsible for large porosity size and coalescence efficiency depends on bubble size difference.

Modeling of Keyhole-Induced Pore Formation in Laser-Arc Hybrid Welding of Aluminum Alloy with a Horizontal Fillet Joint

A three-dimensional transient model is proposed to investigate the weld pool dynamic behavior in laser + metal inert gas (MIG) hybrid fillet welding of aluminum alloy in the horizontal position, which allows for the joint configuration and coupling of the keyhole, droplet and weld pool as well as the heat and mass exchange between gas and liquid phases and is able to simulate the temperature distribution, fluid flow and formation process of a keyhole-induced pore in hybrid welding with a horizontal fillet joint. The weld porosity is also measured using x-ray nondestructive testing technology. Keyhole behavior and the formation mechanism of keyhole-induced porosity were analyzed. The calculated results are in generally good agreement with the experimental ones. A clockwise vortex always exists at the middle part of the weld pool. The formation and growth of the molten metal bulge on the keyhole wall are responsible for the occurrence of a gas bubble, which has a variation in size and shape and can be split during welding. The keyhole collapses easily at its middle or upper part in horizontal fillet welding, and the capture of the bubble by the upper molten pool boundary enhances the possibility of porosity formation to some degree. The keyhole-induced pore is mainly formed at the regions near the keyhole bottom and the upper fusion line of the weld pool.

Investigation on keyhole mode fiber laser welding of SS 316 in a self-protected atmosphere

This work focuses on examining the influence of welding parameters under different welding atmospheres and evaluation of keyhole profile during fiber laser welding operation. The experiments are carried out in two different welding atmospheres, namely self-protected atmosphere of Ar gas and open atmospheric conditions. The effect of these two atmospheric conditions on weld profile formation and dimensions, and microstructural evolution for SS 316 plates are examined. In addition, the keyhole profile is evaluated by using a semi-analytical mathematical model, a point-by-point energy balance determination at the keyhole wall, which is mapped with experimentally measured weld macrographs for similar welding conditions. It has been determined that the weld quality is profound in the case of a self-protected atmosphere with respect to aspect ratio, weld defects, and microstructural characterization. Moreover, better weld bead profile and cleaner weld seam on the upper surface is determined in samples welded in a self-protected atmosphere.

Simulation and experimental studies of keyhole induced porosity in laser-MIG hybrid fillet welding of aluminum alloy in the horizontal position

The keyhole induced porosity in laser-MIG hybrid fillet welding of aluminum alloy in the horizontal position was investigated with simulation and experimental methods. A three dimensional model is developed, which takes into account geometric feature of horizontal filled joint and the coupling of keyhole, droplet and molten pool. Meanwhile, the major forces are also incorporated in the model. The inclination of heat source is dealt with through rotation of coordinate system. This model is able to calculate the keyhole dynamic behavior and the formation process of gas bubble as well as keyhole induced porosity directly. Also, it can describe the merging and disappearing of bubbles. The weld porosity was examined by the X-ray non-destructive testing. Large weld pool size provides more time for bubble to escape from the molten pool, which is the major factor responsible for the reduction in hybrid welding. Besides, the forward flow caused by the clockwise vortex is weakened, which also plays a positive role in improving the stability of back keyhole wall. The keyhole collapses at the middle part easily in horizontal fillet welding, raising the possibility of forming large pore. Bubble is easy to be captured by the upper weld pool boundary when floating up. With enhancing the welding current, the stability of keyhole is enhanced to some extent and the keyhole induced porosity is reduced.

Bulk-Explosion-Induced Metal Spattering During Laser Processing

Spattering has been a problem in metal processing involving high-power lasers, like laser welding, machining, and recently, additive manufacturing. Limited by the capabilities of in situ diagnostic techniques, typically imaging with visible light or laboratory x-ray sources, a comprehensive understanding of the laser-spattering phenomenon, particularly the extremely fast spatters, has not been achieved yet. Here, using MHz single-pulse synchrotron-x-ray imaging, we probe the spattering behavior of Ti-6Al-4V with micrometer spatial resolution and subnanosecond temporal resolution. Combining direct experimental observations, quantitative image analysis, as well as numerical simulations, our study unravels a novel mechanism of laser spattering: The bulk explosion of a tonguelike protrusion forming on the front keyhole wall leads to the ligamentation of molten metal at the keyhole rims and the subsequent spattering. Our study confirms the critical role of melt and vapor flow in the laser-spattering process and opens a door to manufacturing spatter- and defect-free metal parts via precise control of keyhole dynamics.Received 11 December 2018Revised 7 April 2019DOI:https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevX.9.021052Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article’s title, journal citation, and DOI.Published by the American Physical SocietyPhysics Subject Headings (PhySH)Research AreasDrop breakupEvaporationFlow instabilityInterfacial flowsCondensed Matter, Materials & Applied PhysicsFluid DynamicsInterdisciplinary Physics

Mechanism study on the effects of power modulation on energy coupling efficiency in infrared laser welding of highly-reflective materials

High-reflectivity of materials, such as magnesium, copper and aluminum, results in low thermal efficiency of their infrared laser welding processes. AZ31 magnesium alloy was selected to study the effects of power modulation on energy coupling efficiency in laser welding of highly-reflective materials. A model for the relationship between energy coupling efficiency and modulation parameters was obtained. The energy coupling efficiency in optimized modulated-power laser welding was about 1.58 times that in constant-power welding. The mechanism was explored by analyzing keyhole evolution and the resulted pressure distribution along keyhole wall during welding. The keyhole evolutions in laser continuous welding of common material (Q345 steel, reflectivity of 65%) and highly-reflective material (AZ31, reflectivity of 85%) were observed through high-speed imaging by utilizing a half sandwich method. The results indicated that the secret of improving energy coupling efficiency of laser welding process of highly-reflective materials through power modulation was the formation of a deep keyhole and its long life. When instantaneous power decreased from the peak, there was still enough recoil pressure at the bottom of keyhole to resist surface tension and hydrostatic pressure of liquid metal, which was the fundamental reason for the long time existence of keyhole with a large depth.

A novel electrode-arc-weld pool model for studying the keyhole formation in the keyhole plasma arc welding process

A novel electrode-arc-weld pool model considering the influence of the backside keyhole deviation on the heat source distribution, the influence of the keyhole constraint on the arc pressure and the keyhole geometry dependent plasma shear stress, is developed to study the keyhole formation in the KPAW process. The numerical and experimental results show that: the keyhole depth increases very quickly at first, then smoothly, and then quickly again. In the blind keyhole stage, the arc pressure deepens the keyhole. The plasma shear stress facilitates the fluid flow along the rear keyhole wall and decreases the curvature of the keyhole. The process between the weld pool penetration and the keyhole penetration is defined as the blasting penetration stage, in which the molten bridge under the arc is quickly broken. The pressure balance and mass conservation mechanisms are proposed to be responsible for the blasting penetration. The low melting temperature, low surface tension and bottom surface deformation promote the blasting penetration, while the high thermal conductivity suppresses the blasting penetration. In the penetrated keyhole stage, two contrary convective eddies are found inside the weld pool. At the top surface of the weld pool, the molten metal flows upward and backward near the keyhole, but obviously flows forward at the rear part of the weld pool. At the bottom surface of the weld pool, the molten metal flows downward and backward.

Observation of the keyhole behavior, spatter, and keyhole-induced bubble formation in laser welding of a steel/glass sandwich

Laser welding of a steel/glass sandwich is carried out to clearly observe the keyhole behavior, spatter, and keyhole-induced bubble formation. The formation mechanisms of the spatter and keyhole-induced bubble are analyzed, and the relationship between the spatter and keyhole-induced bubble formation is also discussed. There are five necessary steps for the spatter formation around the keyhole: the formation of the bulges at the keyhole wall, the decrease of the keyhole entrance size caused by the upward flow of the bulges, the formation of the melt column around the keyhole, the increasing of the melt column size, and the spatter formation around the keyhole. The decrease of the keyhole entrance size contributes to the increase of the vapor shear stress, and thus accelerates the spatter formation. The large deformation of the top rear keyhole wall decreases the vertical component of the vapor shear stress, so few spatters are formed at the rear keyhole wall. Two types of the keyhole-induced bubble are formed by the whole keyhole collapse between the front keyhole wall and rear keyhole wall, and the rear keyhole wall collapse. The influence of the keyhole-induced bubble formation on the spatter formation is not obvious.

Increasing keyhole stability of fiber laser welding under reduced ambient pressure

Bead-on-plate laser welding was performed, and the inner keyhole behavior was observed through a transparent glass using a high-speed camera at various ambient pressures. The keyhole stability was investigated with respect to the keyhole profile area and keyhole depth using image processing. The keyhole states at atmospheric pressure and vacuum were compared according to the pressure balance at the keyhole wall. The weld surface quality and penetration depth improved with decreasing ambient pressure. The keyhole stability was also sensitive to the ambient pressure. The keyhole oscillated and collapsed periodically at atmospheric pressure (101 kPa), whereas it was stable under vacuum.

Dynamic keyhole behavior and keyhole instability in high power fiber laser welding of stainless steel

A three-dimensional numerical model, considering the real-time multiple reflections of a laser beam, adiabatic bubble model and shear stress, was developed to study the dynamic keyhole behavior and keyhole instability in fiber laser welding of stainless steel. The inner dynamic keyhole behavior and weld defect formation were directly observed in a high resolution assisted by transparent glass. The numerical and experimental results showed that the keyhole width reached the quasi-steady state earlier than the keyhole depth did during fiber laser welding of stainless steel. Due to the large recoil pressure at rear keyhole wall caused by the irradiation of laser energy reflected by the bulge at the front keyhole wall, the rear keyhole wall was severely deformed at keyhole bottom and keyhole middle. The rear keyhole wall was collapsed due to the high surface tension pressure and hydrostatic pressure. The whole keyhole collapse was attributable to the capillary instability of the keyhole associated with large depth/width ratio and the strong flow of the bulges at the keyhole wall. When the laser power was increased, the keyhole depth/width ratio was increased, so the keyhole was more capillary instable. The average inclined angle of the front keyhole wall was decreased.

Numerical and experimental study on keyhole and melt flow dynamics during laser welding of aluminium alloys under subatmospheric pressures

Porosity defects was highly related to the keyhole and melt flow dynamic during laser welding process. In this paper, a novel 3D numerical model was developed to describe the keyhole dynamic and melt flow behaviors during laser welding of 5A06 aluminium alloy under subatmospheric pressures. The effect of ambient pressure on laser welding process was taken into consideration by optimizing the boiling point of aluminium alloy and recoil pressure of evaporated metallic vapor jets based on vapor–liquid equilibria calculation and Wilson equation. A moving hybrid heat source model was employed to describe the laser energy distribution under subatmospheric pressures. Numerical results indicated that a wider and deeper keyhole with less humps was produced under subatmospheric pressure comparing with that of atmospheric pressure. The vortices in the rear keyhole wall became unapparent or even disappeared with the decrease of ambient pressures. The melt flow velocity on the keyhole wall was larger under a lower pressure. A smaller difference between boiling point and melting point was produced and this led to the formation of a thinner keyhole wall and improved the stability of molten pool. Larger recoil pressure produced under subatmospheric pressure was responsible for the weakened vortices and enhanced melt flow velocity. Bigger keyhole opening size, larger melt flow velocity, thinner keyhole and the weakened vortices all resulted into the reduction of porosity defects during laser welding of aluminium alloys. Based on the simulation results, the plasma distribution, weld formation and porosity defects had been demonstrated. The compared results showed that the simulation results exhibited good agreements with the experimental ones.

Porosity and solidification cracking in welded 45 mm thick steel by fiber laser-MAG process

Porosity and solidification cracking in joining of thick sections are very common issues in deep penetration keyhole laser-arc hybrid welding (LAHW). In the present work, 45 mm thick high strength steel was joined by a double-sided technique. With combined use of fast welding speeds and larger air gap between plates, higher amount of porosity was found because of the dynamic behavior of the keyhole walls. Solidification cracking formed at the centerline in the bottom of the weld due to high-depth-to-width geometrical ratio. Numerical simulations have been performed and showed very high cooling rate and stresses occurred in the root of the deep welds, which corresponds with higher cracking tendency.

Impact of fume particles in the keyhole vapour

During laser material processing, the energy of the laser beam needs to be efficiently and constantly transported to the processing zone to guarantee constant processing. However, spatters or ejected particles from the keyhole can absorb and scatter the laser energy leading to inhomogeneous heat input and can initiate defect occurrence like pore formation. The impact of ejected particles from the keyhole on the energy transport of the laser beam is not completely understood since they are difficult to observe due to the small size and high speeds of the ejections. In this work, the particle characteristics were derived from a simulation of the keyhole wall movement. The behavior of the calculated particles in a side shielding gas jet was calculated to derive the height, at which the particles leave the laser beam and are not interrupting the laser energy transfer to the processing zone. Low impulse values of the particles were calculated e.g., at defocusing positions slightly underneath the material surface, where also highest melt pool sizes were found. These observations indicate that the fume particles can be one reason to limit the energy delivery. An efficiency increase can be achieved by adjusting the keyhole parameters to a more stable keyhole.