Keweenaw Research Articles

Release of Copper from Mine Tailings on the Keweenaw Peninsula

Over 500 million tons of copper-rich mine tailings were dumped into lakes, rivers, wetlands, and along the shore of Lake Superior between 1850 and 1968. Metals leaching from mine residues have impacted ecosystems throughout the Keweenaw Peninsula as well as Lake Superior. The objective of this study was to elucidate the chemical processes that release Cu from mine tailings into the water. Copper in mining residues from three contrasting environments (lake sediments, wetland stamp stands, and exposed lakeshore tailings piles) was fractionated with a sequential extraction technique (SET) to identify and quantify the labile pools of copper. The SET revealed that the carbonate and oxide fractions were the largest pools of Cu (ca. 50 ∼ 80%) in lakeshore and wetland stamp sands whereas the organic matter fraction was the largest reservoir (ca. 32%) in the lake sediments. X-ray diffraction and SEM confirmed the presence of the copper-bearing minerals cuprite, tenorite, malachite, and elemental Cu. Size fractionation studies suggested that weathering of native (elemental) Cu results in enrichment of particle surfaces with Cu oxides and carbonates; fine particles also are enriched in these phases. Both laboratory titrations and computer modeling suggested that aqueous Cu concentrations are limited by mineral (malachite and copper(II) oxides) dissolution and precipitation reactions. Concentrations of DOC and pH depressions caused by microbial activity strongly affect the dissolved Cu concentrations. At some sites, aqueous concentrations of copper approach equilibrium with a Cu oxyhydroxide that has a solubility intermediate between that of cupric hydroxide (Cu(OH) 2) and tenorite (CuO).

Anthropogenic Copper Inventories and Mercury Profiles from Lake Superior: Evidence for Mining Impacts

During the past 150 years, the mining industry discharged more than a billion tons of tailings along Lake Superior shorelines and constructed numerous smelters in the watershed. Given the vast size of Lake Superior, were sediment profiles at locations far offshore impacted by nearshore activities? Did copper and associated precious metal mining modify regional fluxes for copper and mercury? Samples from thirty sediment cores document that background concentrations of copper are high (mean 60.9 ± 7.0 μg/g), due to the proximity of natural ore sources. Anthropogenic inventories uncorrected for focusing also are high, ranging from 20 to 780 μg/cm 2 (mean 187 ± 54 μg/cm 2). Focusing factor corrections decrease the mean estimate and reduce variance (144 ± 24 μg/cm 2). Several approaches to estimating inputs suggest that only 6 to 10% of historic copper deposition originated directly from atmospheric sources, emphasizing terrestrial sources. Moreover, coastal sediment cores often show synchronous early increases in copper and mercury with buried maxima. Around the Keweenaw Peninsula, twenty-two cores trace high copper and mercury inventories back to mill and smelting sources. Direct assays of ores from thirteen mine sites confirm a natural amalgam source of mercury in the stamp mill discharges. Core records from inland lakes (Michigamme Project) also reveal patterns of copper and mercury inputs from a variety of mining sources: historic tailing inputs, amalgam assay releases, and atmospheric smelter plumes.

Determination of the Influence of Wind on the Keweenaw Current in the Lake Superior Basin as Identified by Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) Imagery

The Keweenaw Current is a warm coastal current in Lake Superior that flows northeastward along the northern shore of Michigan's Keweenaw Peninsula. This study focuses on the fate of the current at the tip of the Keweenaw Peninsula. Results of this study suggest that the path of the current beyond the peninsula is primarily controlled by wind. In this study, eleven surface temperature maps derived from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometric (AVHRR) data using computer assisted image processing techniques were used to identify the Keweenaw Current. Wind data from two moored data buoys, a Coastal Marine Automated Network (CMAN) fixed buoy, and three airport weather stations, collected on the same day as each of the images and for the two days preceding the image date, are used to determine whether wind direction and speed influence the path of the Keweenaw Current past the tip of the peninsula. In nine images the current's path is similar to the surface Ekman transport direction predicted from wind data. All eleven images show a similarity between the current's actual path and a path calculated when net Ekman transport is assumed. Results of this study also show that there may be a possible lag time of one day between a change in wind direction and the current's adjustment to that change.

In Situ Copper Toxicity Tests: Applying Likelihood Ratio Tests to Daphnia pulex Incubations in Keweenaw Peninsula Waters

Copper toxicity was examined in the Keweenaw Waterway and Gay region using in situ mortality tests. Daphnia pulex were placed in shell vials at thirteen field sites selected to encompass copper contamination from tailing piles to undisturbed shoreline environments. Likelihood Ratio Tests statistically compared mortality patterns between sites. In ponds on stamp sand piles, Daphnia survivorship was very low as dissolved copper concentrations greatly exceeded laboratory-derived LC 50 values. Survivorship at shoreline stamp sand sites in Torch Lake, the most disturbed region, was also low, demonstrating a “halo” effect around shoreline piles. Survivorship was much better in Portage Lake and in wetland sites, probably because of lower Cu concentrations and organic complexing. Daphnia's ability to tolerate dissolved copper concentrations above laboratory LC 50 values suggests that much of the dissolved copper in the Keweenaw Waterway is complexed and non-available. Non-bioavailable ratios (NRs) were determined by means of 96-hour EPA-protocol laboratory toxicity tests, and results were compared with laboratory copper ion tests. Although one site showed that seepage of humic-rich groundwater through stamp sands might enhance dissolved copper levels, in general the mean total copper levels found in the Keweenaw Waterway system were lower than reported 20 years ago, suggesting that the system is recovering from historic copper contamination.

The Keweenaw Current and Ice Rafting: Use of Satellite Imagery to Investigate Copper-rich Particle Dispersal

The immense surface area and large volume of Lake Superior causes thermal characteristics to resemble marine waters, yet the completely bounded shoreline and low flushing rate introduce unique features. Previously, shoreline inputs were considered minor, as annual river discharges account for only 0.36% of the total hydrologic volume of the lake. However, thermal bar formation and wind shear from prevailing westerlies impound warm waters along the southern coastline, creating a coastal exposure corridor with strong counterclockwise circulation known as the Keweenaw Current. Discharges from rivers and industrial sources are confined, then entrained. Here infrared AVHRR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer) satellite imagery was utilized, verified by NDBC (NOAA National Data Buoy Center) buoy surface data, to document thermal features of offshore waters and the coastal zone. Five stamp mills at Freda/Redridge discharged over 45 million metric tons of stamp sands between 1895 and 1922. The coarse fraction forms beach sands that now extend 23 kilometers north from their sources and that blanket shallow-water sandy sediments. The finer fractions disperse much farther than the coarse fractions, moving along the primary track of the Keweenaw Current. SPOT and TM (Thematic Mapper) imagery were used to document how Ontonagon clays and Freda/Redridge stamp sand particles are entrained by the Keweenaw Current. The two particle types have distinctive reflective spectra. An additional transport mechanism, revealed by RADARSAT ScanSAR (Synthetic Aperature Radar) imagery, is ice rafting. Nearshore ice incorporates large amounts of coastal sands and deeper-water sediments. Spring break-up of coastal ice results in large drifting ice packs that are pushed by prevailing westerlies and currents around the tip of the Keweenaw Peninsula into the Caribou Basin.

Beyond the Boundaries: Life and Landscape at the Lake Superior Copper Mines, 1840-1875

Spanning the years 1840-1875, Beyond the Boundaries focuses on the settlement of Upper Michigan's Keweenaw Peninsula, telling the story of reluctant pioneers who attempted to establish a decent measure of comfort, control, and security in what was in many ways a hostile environment. Moving beyond the technological history of the period found in his previous book Cradle to the Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines (OUP 1991), Lankton here focuses on the people of this region and how the copper mining affected their daily lives. A truly first-rate social history, Beyond the Boundaries will appeal to historians of the frontier and of Michigan and the Great Lakes region, as well as historians of technology, labor, and everyday life.

A Keweenaw Adventure: Specimen Mining at the Caledonia Mine, Ontonagon County, Michigan

(1997). A Keweenaw Adventure: Specimen Mining at the Caledonia Mine, Ontonagon County, Michigan. Rocks & Minerals: Vol. 72, No. 2, pp. 107-115.

Strangers and Sojourners: A History of Michigan's Keweenaw Peninsula.

Journal Article Strangers and Sojourners: A History of Michigan's Keweenaw Peninsula. By Arthur W. Thurner. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994. 404 pp. Cloth, $44.95, ISBN 08143-2395-2. Paper, $16.95, ISBN 0-8143-2396-0.) Get access Nora Faires Nora Faires University of Michigan, Flint, Michigan Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Journal of American History, Volume 82, Issue 3, December 1995, Pages 1217–1218, https://doi.org/10.2307/2945181 Published: 01 December 1995

Abundance Indices for Determining the Status of Lake Trout Restoration in Michigan Waters of Lake Superior

Abstract Self-sustaining populations of lake trout Salvelinus namaycush have returned to most areas in Lake Superior, but progress toward achieving historic commercial yields has been difficult to measure because of unrecorded losses to predation by sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus and to fisheries. Consequently, we developed restoration targets (catch per effort, CPE; geometric mean number per kilometer of 114-mm stretch-measure gill net during 1929–1943, when historic yields were sustained) from linear relationships between CPE in commercial and assessment fisheries in Michigan. Target CPEs for lake trout restoration were higher and less variable than the modern CPEs in all areas. Modern CPEs generally increased during the 1970s and early 1980s but declined during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Modern CPEs were highest in western Michigan from the Keweenaw Peninsula to Marquette (71 to 81% of target CPEs), but coefficients of variation (CV, SD/mean) of mean CPEs were 1.4 to 2.4 times greater than target ...

Strangers and Sojourners: A History of Michigan's Keweenaw Peninsula

Arthur Thurner tells of the enormous struggle of the diverse immigrants who built and sustained energetic towns and communities, creating a lively civilization in what was essentially a forest wilderness. Their story is one of incredible economic success and grim tragedy in which mine workers daily risked their lives. By highlighting the roles women, African Americans, and Native Americans played in the growth of the Keweenaw community, Thurner details a neglected and ignored past.The history of Keweenaw Peninsula for the past one hundred and fifty years reflects contemporary American culture-a multicultural, pluralistic, democratic welfare state still undergoing evolution.Strangers and Sojourners, with its integration of social and economic history, for the first time tells the complete story of the people from the Keweenaw Peninsula's Baraga, Houghton, Keweenaw, and Ontonagon counties.

Prey of Deep-water Hydra in Lake Superior

Specimens of Hydra attached to a soft-substrate bottom were collected from a manned submersible at a 275-m-deep station near the Keweenaw Peninsula in Lake Superior. Near-bottom zoo-plankton were collected to assess Hydra feeding preference. We identified and counted the zooplankton samples, and identified the zooplankton prey found in the Hydra. Of 86 Hydra, 21 contained remains of 23 prey of 4 zooplankton taxa. Compared with expected numbers based on the proportions of the net samples, these Hydra appeared to be feeding selectively, with a preference for larger zooplankton. The large calanoid copepod Limnocalanus macrurus was particularly selected. A very provisional estimate of the rate of Hydra predation on the bottom of Lake Superior is one prey per 4 days. The relatively constant environmental conditions, lack of commensals and predators, and the zooplankton food source suggest that the bottom of Lake Superior is a stable habitat for Hydra.

Paleolimnological study of copper mining around Lake Superior: Artificial varves from Portage Lake provide a high resolution record

On the Keweenaw Peninsula region of Lake Superior, ∼0.5 Gt of copper mine tailings were dumped along rivers, lakes, and connecting waterways between 1850 and 1968—an era of active copper and silver mining. In the low-energy environment of Portage Lake, a part of the Keweenaw Waterway, clay particles from stamp sand discharges created artificially varved lake sediments that preserved a remarkably detailed record. Measurements of these varves, in conjunction with radiodating techniques, allow precise determinations of deposition rates, sediment, and Cu fluxes. Concentration and flux profiles produce fundamentally different patterns. Copper concentrations have remained high in sediments despite complete cessation of active tailings discharge. However, densitometer scans of X-rayed cores and flux calculations at sites closest to sluicing locations reveal a good correspondence with the historic record of stamp sand production. Sedimentation rates and Cu fluxes have declined steadily since cessation of native copper mining, although elevated Cu levels continue to circulate in the ecosystem. Comparisons of Cu profiles from sediment cores across eastern Lake Superior suggest widespread signatures of mining and major contribution to sediments.

Post-Keweenawan compressional faults in the eastern Lake Superior region and their tectonic significance

GLIMPCE aeromagnetic data in eastern Lake Superior are characterized by a series of strong easterly- and northeasterly-oriented gradients that relate to mapped post-Keweenawan faults occurring along the eastern shore. The reversed nature of three of the faults is established through field observations and potential field modelling. Middle Keweenawan volcanic rocks at Mamainse Point are in fault contact on their south side with upper Keweenawan sandstone of Bayfield–Jacobsville type. Gravity modelling suggests that the fault is a low angle thrust dipping to the north. Field observations and high-resolution aeromagnetic data show that it extends inland along the southern margin of the Batchawana Greenstone Belt for at least 17 km. To the west, the Mamainse Point fault may extend across eastern Lake Superior to the Keweenaw Peninsula, linking several offsets in the seismic data that are consistent with the same attitude and sense of displacement. Along the south side of Batchawana Bay at Havilland, sandstones of Bayfield–Jacobsville type are isoclinally folded against a package of upthrust older rocks that include drag-folded middle Keweenawan volcanics. At Grindstone Point, north of Cape Gargantua, a reverse fault separating isoclinally-folded upper Keweenawan sandstones from Archean basement may, on aeromagnetic evidence, be an eastward extension of the Michipicoten Island fault.These faults mark a significant change in the style of late compressional tectonism observed within the Midcontinent Rift. All cut Keweenawan rocks across strike. The inference is that broad north–south or northwest–southeast compression, consistent in timing and orientation with the Grenville Orogeny, led to a reversal of movement along the major graben faults in western Lake Superior and was taken up in the eastern region by reverse faults oriented normal to the extensional axis of the rift.

A paleomagnetic study of the lava flows within the Copper Harbor Conglomerate, Michigan: new results and implications

New paleomagnetic data have been obtained from the interbedded lava flows within the Copper Harbor Conglomerate on Michigan's Keweenaw Peninsula. Previous paleomagnetic studies of these lava flows, known collectively as the Lake Shore Traps, have produced contradictory results. To investigate the cause of these conflicting results, 30 sites encompassing the most complete section of lava flows possible were collected and analyzed.Well-defined characteristic directions of magnetization were isolated using either alternating-field or thermal demagnetization or a combination of both. These directions of magnetization are interpreted as primary magnetizations acquired during the original cooling of the lavas. Hysteresis, thermomagnetic, and petrographic analyses suggest the carrier of magnetization is a pseudo-single-domain, titanium-poor magnetite that has undergone some high-temperature oxidation.Site means determined from the 30 lava flows define three distinct directional clusters. Each cluster of directions corresponds to a different stratigraphic package of lava flows with the Copper Harbor Conglomerate. Between-site dispersion for each stratigraphic package or unit is much less than the expected value for Keweenawan-age rocks. Therefore, we suggest that most of the lava flows in each unit were extruded rapidly and that within an individual stratigraphic unit, paleosecular variation has not been adequately sampled. This explains why previous studies on the Lake Shore Traps have produced such different results; each study did not sample the entire range of directions possible in these lava flows.The paleomagnetic pole calculated from the 30 site-mean virtual geomagnetic poles is located at 22.2°N, 180.8°E (k = 35.0; A95 = 6.5°). The new Copper Harbor pole is now located in the appropriate chronological position with respect to the underlying Portage Lake Volcanics and the overlying Nonesuch Shale on the Keweenawan apparent polar wander path. The similarity of our Copper Harbor pole to that of the Portage Lake Volcanics reinforces the idea that the Copper Harbor Conglomerate is more closely related in time to the Portage Lake Volcanics than to the Nonesuch Shale.

Comparison of the relative sensitivity of three benthic invertebrates to copper-contaminated sediments from the Keweenaw Waterway

The Keweenaw Peninsula in northern Michigan was once a major copper mining area and these mining activities were responsible for depositing tons of tailings in and around the Keweenaw Waterway. In recent years there has been concern about possible toxic effects of the contaminated sediments on aquatic communities in the system. In the fall of 1990, sediments were collected from various locations along the Waterway. Ten-day tests were conducted with the samples using three species of benthic invertebrates that have been proposed as suitable for evaluating the toxicity of freshwater sediments: Hyalella azteca (amphipods), Chironomus tentans (chironomids) and Lumbriculus variegatus(oligochaetes). A number of sediments were toxic to one or more of the three species and, in general, there was good agreement among the tests with regard to identifying toxic samples. Unexpectedly, the relative sensitivity of the three species to the test sediments was not accurately predicted from water-only copper exposures. This indicates that factors modifying exposure, such as different lifestyles and/or varying sensitivity to physico-chemical characteristics of sediments can influence results of sediment toxicity tests.

Selective Advantages to Hemi-Parasitic Annuals, Genus Melampyrum, of a Seed-Dispersal Mutualism Involving Ants: I. Favorable Nest Sites

Directed dispersal to nest sites that are favorable in several possible regards may he an important factor in the maintenance and, by inference, the evolution of myrmecochory in Melampyrum. Results of a field study in oak-pine woodlands of the Keweenaw Peninsula of northern Michigan, USA support such a hypothesis. Diaspores were set out at grid points on the forest floor and monitored for ant removal. Nest sites (n = 47), which were otherwise undetectable, were located and marked by tracing diaspore-carrying ants to their destination. Additional diaspores were placed at each nest site and then observed until all (n=20) were taken into the nest

The making of a mining district: Keweenaw native copper, 1500-1870

The Keweenaw Peninsula of northern Michigan is the only place on earth where large amounts of copper are found in the pure metallic state. The Making of a Mining District is the first book to fully document how the value of these unique deposits came to be recognized, from the time Europeans first became aware of the native copper shortly after 1500 to the establishment of the region as one of the great copper mining districts of the world.Krause focuses on the period from 1820 to 1865, when the district's true mining potential became clearer to many and when American science changed from a pleasant amateur diversion into a more rigorous professional discipline, a change clearly reflected in attitudes toward this unique region.

Lichens collected on the 10th Midwest Bryological and Lichenological Foray on the Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan

Lichens collected on the 10th Midwest Bryological and Lichenological Foray on the Keweenaw Peninsula, Michigan

Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines by Larry Lankton

160 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE small-scale, entrepreneurial industrial culture, Scranton’s introduc­ tion lends greater meaning to the several-score site descriptions that constitute the bulk of the inventory. In sum, this is not a perfect publication, and criticisms can be made concerning both site selection and the volume’s format. But as an initial attempt to delineate the industrial archeology of one of the world’s premier early-20th-century manufacturing centers, it de­ serves recognition. And given the relative lack of knowledge concern­ ing Philadelphia as a cauldron of industrial development, Workshop Of the World warrants praise in helping to further our understanding of American technology. Donald C. Jackson Dr. Jackson is assistant professor of history at Lafayette College and book review editor of IA: The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology. Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines. By Larry Lankton. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Pp. xi + 319; illustrations, notes, bibliography, index. $39.95. In Cradle to Grave, Larry Lankton has written a history of copper mining on the Keweenaw Peninsula of northern Michigan. He exam­ ines the origins and growth of copper mining between roughly 1840 and 1920 and to a lesser extent the decline of the industry in the years since 1920. He aims at a ‘“social history of technology’—one that works that particular space where machine and man meet, and where industry and society connect” (p. viii). For the most part, Lankton has succeeded admirably in his exploration of the social consequences of technological change. Lankton concentrates chiefly on the years between 1890 and 1920. He offers rich and thoughtful accounts of technological change as it transformed copper mining at the turn of the century. His treatments of the adoption of the first power drills, nitroglycerine, mechanized transport of rock, and the substitution of one-man drills provide the reader with a succession of case studies of management efforts to increase labor productivity. He is sensitive to conflicts within this larger process—between mine owners and managers on the one hand, and between management and workers on the other. He offers nuanced explanations of the course of technological change within a context that is strongly influenced by social relations at the workplace. Notable also in Lankton’s account is his treatment of corporate paternalism in the mining region. As the book’s title suggests, mining firms shaped the lives of workers beyond the mines, rockhouses, and smelters where they labored. Lankton is interested in power relations TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE Book Reviews 161 between workers and managers and in the ways paternalist practices shaped these relations. He shows, for instance, how economic necessity required the first mine owners to provide worker housing, but he also explores how housing policies changed over time. As firms moved from renting homes to leasing building lots to workers, they found a more cost-effective way to provide workers’ housing. Still, by leasing lots to workers and encouraging them to build their own homes, mining firms offered incentives that reduced turnover and effectively tied workers to the company. Similar treatments of company policies concerning compensation to victims of industrial accidents and early pension practices demonstrate how firms adopted paternalistic policies that reinforced their unilateral power and largesse. The discussions of technological change and corporate paternalism will be of interest to business and labor historians familiar with similar developments in industrial America in the years between the Civil War and World War I. As useful as Lankton’s treatment of the transformation of technol­ ogy and labor relations in copper mining between 1890 and 1920 is, I would have liked to see him carry the analysis more fully into the period of industrial decline. He offers a final chapter on the years since 1920, but, in summarizing a fifty-year period in only twentyfour pages, he is necessarily brief in his treatment of deindustrializa­ tion. This problem is common to much of the literature in economic history; we know far more about economic and social change in periods of industrialization than we know about the periods of decline that have followed. So many questions remain unanswered in the book...

Workshop of the World: A Selective Guide to the Industrial Archeology of Philadelphia by the Oliver Evans Chapter of the Society for Industrial Archeology

technology and culture Book Reviews 159 human picture of the individual and offers a great deal of insight into the period in which he lived. George H. Daniels Dr. Daniels is professor of history and chairman of the Department of History at the University of South Alabama. He has published articles on Alabama business history and has in progress a study of an early Alabama industrialist. Workshop of the World: A Selective Guide to the Industrial Archeology of Philadelphia. By the Oliver Evans Chapter of the Society for Indus­ trial Archeology. Wallingford, Pa.: Oliver Evans Press, 1990. Pp· 300; illustrations, notes, bibliography, site index. $25.00 (paper). In concert with its annual conferences, the Society for Industrial Archeology usually produces a useful inventory of historic engineer­ ing and industrial sites within the host city or region. For the 1990 meeting in Philadelphia, the society’s local chapter assembled a lengthy list of historic sites covering most, but certainly not all, of the self-proclaimed “workshop of the world.” Working as a decentralized team under the overall leadership of John Bowie, about twenty members took responsibility for an inventory of separate districts and neighborhoods. With widely disparate backgrounds, the individual team members necessarily brought their own interests and skills to the project, and, unfortunately, this meant that coverage within the inventory would not be of uniform quality or depth. Given the size of Philadelphia and the richness of its industrial heritage, almost inevi­ tably an inventory of this type must be more of a “sampler” than an all-inclusive listing. In fact, Bowie acknowledges this with the caveat: “No effort was made for this study to be comprehensive. Instead the publication is intended to be a guidebook to some of Philadelphia’s industrial sites and neighborhoods for those people interested in exploring and seeing them” (p. i-4). For historians who may not be interested in arranging field trips and site visits, the inventory still has much to offer. In particular, Philip Scranton’s “Context and Overview” provides a succinct yet scholarly introduction to the city’s industrial history which explains how “from roughly 1880 through 1920, Philadelphia’s industrial districts supported an array of mills and plants whose diversity has scarcely been matched anywhere in the history of manufacturing” (p. ii-2). Drawing from a perspective akin to that developed in his book Proprietary Capitalism (Cambridge, 1983), Scranton explains how the city supported a few major factories such as the Baldwin Loco­ motive Works but was “far better known as an incubator for small enterprises,” with almost seven hundred separate companies operat­ ing in the textile industry alone at the turn of the 20th century. In providing a context for why and how Philadelphia nurtured such a 160 Book Reviews TECHNOLOGY AND CULTURE small-scale, entrepreneurial industrial culture, Scranton’s introduc­ tion lends greater meaning to the several-score site descriptions that constitute the bulk of the inventory. In sum, this is not a perfect publication, and criticisms can be made concerning both site selection and the volume’s format. But as an initial attempt to delineate the industrial archeology of one of the world’s premier early-20th-century manufacturing centers, it de­ serves recognition. And given the relative lack of knowledge concern­ ing Philadelphia as a cauldron of industrial development, Workshop Of the World warrants praise in helping to further our understanding of American technology. Donald C. Jackson Dr. Jackson is assistant professor of history at Lafayette College and book review editor of IA: The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology. Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines. By Larry Lankton. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Pp. xi + 319; illustrations, notes, bibliography, index. $39.95. In Cradle to Grave, Larry Lankton has written a history of copper mining on the Keweenaw Peninsula of northern Michigan. He exam­ ines the origins and growth of copper mining between roughly 1840 and 1920 and to a lesser extent the decline of the industry in the years since 1920. He aims at a ‘“social history of technology’—one that works that particular space where machine and man meet, and where industry and society connect...