Kerosene Stove Research Articles

Implications of Different Household Cooking Energy on Indoor Air Quality in Urban and Semi-Urban Settlements in Imo, South Eastern Nigeria

Energy is a basic necessity of life for meeting domestic, social and industrial needs of man. But the use of some of the energy sources has created problems in indoor environment that requires urgent attention. This study assessed the indoor air quality status as regards the effect of different household cooking methods from the use of nonrenewable energy sources in parts of Imo State. The cooking methods sampled were firewood stove, kerosene stove, charcoal stove, electricity stove and gas cooker. Indoor air quality was measured by digital air analyzers of different models continuously for 24 hours. Data collected were subjected to ANOVA using the SPSS 12.0 software, and mean values separated with FLSD) at P<0.05 as statistically significant. Results showed that CO and PM 2.5 concentrations produced during the use of firewood stove in urban settlements recorded the mean (313.94± 21.77 and 476.06±203.09 and semi- urban settlement (320.48±25.03and 562.38±174.87. The overall mean indoor air pollutants in urban and semi-urban environment were in order of : SO 2 ≥CO ≥PM 2.5 ≥NO 2 respectively, with CO, SO 2 and PM 2.5 being above the 100 (μg/m³), 80 (μg/m³) and 150(μg/m³) NAQS-2006 IAQ. Indoor air qualities from cooking methods in urban and semi-urban are statistically different at (P < 0.05) level. The findings further indicated that gas cooker and electric stove cooking methods have less harmful effects than fuel wood, charcoal and kerosene on the indoor air quality in the study area. This indicated that urban and semi-urban settlements were utilizing energy sources at the lower energy ladder, with fuel wood dominating. Based on the findings, cleaner energy sources should be used in order to reduce indoor air pollution in developing countries.

Burns and fires in South Africa’s informal settlements: Have approved kerosene stoves improved safety?

This study is a follow-on to an intervention project that implemented South African Bureau of Standards approved kerosene stoves and safety education in 150 households of a Johannesburg informal settlement. An investigation conducted 12 months later established that 43 stoves had operational defects, yet 23 households continued using the faulty appliances. This study focuses on (1) the psychological and behavioural factors associated with continued use of faulty stoves by the 23 households, and (2), the specific technical failures of these stoves. The study involved one-on-one recall interviews with the households using defective stoves (N=21) and laboratory-based stove tests for seven of the affected appliances. The results indicate that the stoves had defects in critical safety features such as flame control and the self-extinguishing mechanism. Four stove malfunctions of minor burn affect were reported in the study. Continued use of the damaged stoves was significantly associated with the time from receipt of the stove to detection of first failure: stoves that failed later on were more significantly likely to remain in use as compared to those that failed sooner. The findings point to the need for strengthening enforcement of appliance standards, public education on kerosene stove use, and structural change for the energy-poor.

Home Appliances Efficiency Improvements for Energy Conservation in Debre Berhan City; Ethiopia

This paper presents the analysis of efficiency improvements of home appliances such as Electrical Stove (Injera Mitad), Electrical Showers, Kerosene Stoves, Charcoal Stoves and Small Electrical Stoves for energy conservation. Most of the existing stoves have been manufactured by small facilities without any regard for energy efficiency standard and safety. It suffers from many shortfalls, such as, poor insulation, lack of temperature regulation, bulkiness and overall poor design that encourages wastage of heat. The energy efficiency of the ordinary electric stove is very low since much of the heat energy is lost through the bottom, its sides, on the top part of the oven and also due to the much delay in the existing Injera baking procedure. The overall efficiency of the electrical shower is affected by the reservoir efficiency and the characteristics of the pipe. Kerosene and charcoal stoves have high heat energy loss due to lack of insulation to their external cover. Therefore, the efficiency of those electrical home appliances can be improved by minimizing the losses through their covers and parts. This can be achieved by selecting appropriate low thermal conductivity materials and insulations.

Burn Deaths: An Autopsy Based Study in a Tertiary Care Hospital in Western Odisha

Burn is a major public health problem in developing countries. The dowry and related bride burning incidences makes it a bigger challenge in Indian context. Profile of burn victims vary between communities, cultures and regions. To know the socio-demographic profile of burn victims, identify the most vulnerable and to determine underlying cause, this study was taken up in the only tertiary care hospital in western Odisha. This prospective autopsy based study between Jan 2014 to Sept 2015 done in VIMSAR, Burla, included 55 such cases of burn deaths. A majority of 72.8% were females with peak incidence in 21–30 yrs age group. Eighty percentage females were married and 73.33% male victims were unmarried. Most (47.27%) cases were reported to take place in kitchens. All the female burns were within the premises of home. Fall of open flame lamps were the commonest source of fire followed by kerosene stoves. More than 70% of surface burns were detected in two third of fatal burns. The young married females in kitchen using kerosene stoves and flame lamps in rural area are identified as most vulnerable to fatal burn incidences. Specific strategies need to be developed to safe guard them.

Assessment of Perceived Health and Environmental Problems of Household Energy Consumption among Ilese Ijebu Residents Southwestern Nigeria

The study was carried out among Ilese-Ijebu residents southwestern Nigeria, to assess their perceived health and environmental problems associated with different sources of household energy use for cooking, then their perception and acceptability of adopting other alternative source of energy (biogas). A focused group discussion and self-structured questionnaire administration methodologies were adopted to elicit information on their current energy sources and adoption for alternative energy source (biogas). The researchers randomly selected twenty five (25) households to include the total sample size of one hundred (100) and organized an interactive session on the subject matter, during which three prepared forms were given out to the participants to filled their demographics characteristics, sources of energy for household cooking with associated health and environmental problems and perception and acceptability of biogas, descriptive statistics and likert scale technique were used to analyze the results obtained. The results of the analysis showed that, the respondents do make use of more than one source of energy for cooking, kerosene stoves (95), firewood (63), charcoal stove(32), while lesser people made use of liquefied gas (12) and electricity (5). Average numbers of respondents 50-60 are aware of associated health and environmental problems with firewood and charcoal, but not ready to use electricity and liquefied gas because of bills and fire hazards when the energy sources is not properly handled. However, the likert scale results of the positive score of 227 and the negative score of 598 on the acceptability of use of biogas for domestic cooking indicating that, presently, the residents are not ready to adopt the biogas as the alternative energy. Therefore, there is need to organize massive awareness campaign, health education talks among the residents on the effect of air pollution associated with household energy sources and consumption, health and financial benefits of adopting other alternative clean energy source.

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF HEAT-BASED SMARTCELL PHONE CHARGER

Smart phone services have become all-encompassing in these modern life activities. These phones operate with batteries that provide the necessary electrical power. The batteries’ stored energy often got used up; and the conventional electrical power charging sources like public power supply, generating sets, solar devices among others are not only unreliable but most times totally unavailable in some villages and camp settlements. There was then the need to produce simple, inexpensive and easily accessible battery chargers for the phones. This paper therefore studies and analyses the performance of a locally-made, off-grid and renewable energy power phone charger. The device output voltage, current and hence power has been tested at varying degrees of temperatures. Finally it was tested with different heat sources like, charcoals, Gas- burner, kerosene stove, wood stove, and Camp and Barbecue fires for heat source efficiencies. The results prove that charcoals and gas-burner heat sources are the most efficient heat source for operating the heat-smart- phone charger.

PROJECT-BASED LEARNING AND SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION USING LOCALLY DESIGNED SOLAR CONCENTRATOR: ENCOURAGING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES AMONG NIGERIAN SCIENCE STUDENTS

Emerging trends in education reforms have continued to call for quality education that will foster the ability of learners to meet the challenges of the 21st century and encourage their participation in sustainable development issues. The wealth drawn from quality education form the basis to finding solutions to issues of national economy beginning from needs of rural people. The current economic recession in Nigeria radically challenges the system of education to shift from factory model of education to a more proactive system of education through PBL. Twenty secondary school students from Anambra State, Nigeria participated in the study. The study was an experiment that involved the participants in designing a solar concentrator using locally available materials. The students used the designed solar concentrator to generate high temperatures at the focal region of the concentrator where the absorber was positioned. The incoming solar radiation was measured periodically for four days using pyranometer between 8.00 to 18.00 hours. The temperatures of the concentrator surface, the focal region (the absorber), the control, the ambient, the air within the aperture of the concentrator and outside the concentrator were monitored using mercury-in-glass thermometers. Results revealed that the rise in temperature of the absorber was much higher than that of the control, concentrator surface and ambient temperatures. The behavior of the system was similar for all the days, with the maximum temperatures obtained at the absorber between 12.30 hours and 14.30 hours (70 oC to 96 oC). The temperature of the collector varied between 43˚C and 45˚C while the ambient temperature varied slightly from about 30 o C to 32 o C. The results clearly showed that the designed solar concentrator was an effective solar cooker/solar furnace and could function better than most kerosene stoves which exude smoke and pollute the air. Collaborative working in groups also enhanced the acquisition of soft and generic skills. Article DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.20319/pijtel.2017.11.2850 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-commercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, PO Box 1866, Mountain View, CA 94042, USA.

Kitchen PM2.5 concentrations and child acute lower respiratory infection in Bhaktapur, Nepal: The importance of fuel type

BackgroundGlobally, solid fuels are used by about 3 billion people for cooking and a smaller number use kerosene. These fuels have been associated with acute lower respiratory infection (ALRI) in children. Previous work in Bhaktapur, Nepal, showed comparable relationships of biomass and kerosene cooking fuels with ALRI in young children, compared to those using electricity for cooking. We examine the relationship of kitchen PM2.5 concentrations to ALRI in those households. MethodsALRI cases and age-matched controls were enrolled from a cohort of children 2–35 months old. 24-h PM2.5 was measured once in each participant's kitchen. The main analysis was carried out with conditional logistic regression, with PM2.5 measures specified both continuously and as quartiles. ResultsIn the kitchens of 393 cases and 431 controls, quartiles of increasing PM2.5 concentration were associated with a monotonic increase in odds ratios (OR): 1.51 (95% CI: 1.00, 2.27), 2.22 (1.47, 3.34), 2.48 (1.63, 3.77), for the 3 highest exposure quartiles. The general kitchen concentration-response shape across all stoves was supralinear. There was evidence for increased risk with biomass stoves, but the slope for kerosene stoves was steeper, the highest quartile OR being 5.36 (1.35, 21.3). Evidence for increased risk was also found for gas stoves. ConclusionResults support previous reports that biomass and kerosene cooking fuels are both ALRI risk factors, but suggests that PM2.5 from kerosene is more potent on a unit mass basis. Further studies with larger sample sizes and preferably using electricity as the baseline fuel are needed.

Determination of Energy and Time Requirement for Cooking Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan)

Purpose: High energy requirement and long cooking time are limiting consumption of pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), a nutritious food. This study was performed to estimate energy and time demand by different methods of cooking pigeon pea. Methods: Pigeon pea (150 g) was soaked in 2.0 L of water at ambient temperature (29 ± 2°C) to determine hydration behavior. Cooking experiments were conducted using aluminum and pressure-cooking pots. Efficiency of cooking was evaluated using four types of cooking appliances (kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), electric, and charcoal stoves). Normal (continuous heating until the food was satisfactorily cooked) and control (controlling the energy input to closely match the actual energy required) cooking were conducted. Energy requirement and duration of cooking were determined using standard procedures. Results: Soaking increased moisture content from 11.99 to 30.01% in 90 min, while water absorption rate decreased with soaking duration. In cooking 150 g of pigeon pea using kerosene stove, presoaked normal pressure-pot cooking method consumed the least energy (10 800 kJ) and time (205 min), while unsoaked normal cooking consumed the highest energy (18 450 kJ) and time (336 min). Using LPG stove, unsoaked normal cooking method required the highest energy (52 470 kJ), while presoaked control pressure-pot required the least energy (14 405 kJ). For electric stove, the lowest energy (15 560 kJ) and shortest duration (105 min) were recorded during control cooking of presoaked sample in the pressure-pot. Conclusions: Control cooking was not practicable using charcoal stove. Generally, kerosene stove consumed the least energy, while electric stove was found to have the shortest duration of cooking.

Trends and risk factors of stillbirths and neonatal deaths in Eastern Uganda (1982-2011): a cross-sectional, population-based study.

To identify mortality trends and risk factors associated with stillbirths and neonatal deaths 1982-2011. Population-based cross-sectional study based on reported pregnancy history in Iganga-Mayuge Health and Demographic Surveillance Site (HDSS) in Uganda. A pregnancy history survey was conducted among women aged 15-49 years living in the HDSS during May-July 2011 (n = 10 540). Time trends were analysed with cubic splines and linear regression. Potential risk factors were examined with multilevel logistic regression with adjusted odds ratios (AOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI). 34 073 births from 1982 to 2011 were analysed. The annual rate of decrease was 0.9% for stillbirths and 1.8% for neonatal mortality. Stillbirths were associated with several risk factors: multiple births (AOR 2.57, CI 1.66-3.99), previous adverse outcome (AOR 6.16, CI 4.26-8.88) and grand multiparity among 35- to 49-year-olds (AOR 1.97, CI 1.32-2.89). Neonatal deaths were associated with multiple births (AOR 6.16, CI 4.80-7.92) and advanced maternal age linked with parity of 1-4 (AOR 2.34, CI 1.28-4.25) and grand multiparity (AOR 1.44, CI 1.09-1.90). Education, marital status and household wealth were not associated with the outcomes. The slow decline in mortality rates and easily identifiable risk factors calls for improving quality of care at birth and a rethinking of how to address obstetric risks, potentially a revival of the risk approach in antenatal care.

Sustained usage of bioethanol cookstoves shown in an urban Nigerian city via new SUMs algorithm

An unbiased assessment of cooking patterns during a cookstove intervention can provide strong evidence for sustained usage of a cookstove among the target population. A bioethanol cookstove was used as an intervention within a randomized controlled trial being conducted in Ibadan, Nigeria to assess the ability of a clean stove to improve birth outcomes. Sustained usage of the intervention was quantified using a newly developed method of analyzing cooking patterns based on time integrated temperature data from Stove Use Monitors (SUMs) installed on household cookstoves. The method accounts for household level variations in ambient temperatures. We report a significant decline of traditional kerosene stove usage, 84% of women in the Bioethanol arm giving away their kerosene stove before the conclusion of the study (56% within the first month of enrollment), suggesting the bioethanol stove replaced the kerosene stove. This is the first study to objectively evaluate a liquid-to-liquid fuel substitution.

Cooking fuel from Jatropha Curcas feedstock: An experiment based techno‐economic analysis

AbstractJatropha Curcas is a promising feedstock for biofuel production, which can be grown in tropical and subtropical regions globally. Utilization of oil produced from the Jatropha seed can reduce the use of common cooking fuels in developing countries such as firewood, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Thus, many developing countries including Nepal are promoting Jatropha‐based biofuel production plants. However, before the commercial establishment of such a facility, a thorough techno‐economic analysis is required. Thus, this study conducted a techno‐economic analysis of a commercial‐scale Jatropha oil production facility with a nameplate capacity of 23.87 million liter/year. Jatropha seeds collected from different regions of Nepal were used to determine the oil yield and other required input materials for the oil extraction process. Thermal efficiency of a conventional kerosene stove blending with Jatropha oil was also determined. These experimental data and other data associated with process equipment collected from the literature were used to conduct the techno‐economic analysis. The estimated Jatropha oil costs ($/L) with and without oil cake revenue were 0.64 and 0.76, respectively. Additionally, Jatropha oil production cost ($/L) including oil cake revenue at 90% confidence interval was 0.38–1.02. Feedstock cost, oil yield, oil cake revenue, and plant size were the most sensitive parameters to oil production cost. Further, thermal efficiency of 38.8 ± 0.18% was obtained when 20% (v/v) Jatropha oil was blended with kerosene and the efficiency was inversely proportional to blending ratio. Overall, 20% (v/v) Jatropha oil‐kerosene blend could be a viable cooking fuel for developing countries. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd

Mild Cognitive Impairment longitudinal Study in a Cuba population: 10 years later

An unbiased assessment of cooking patterns during a cookstove intervention can provide strong evidence for sustained usage of a cookstove among the target population. A bioethanol cookstove was used as an intervention within a randomized controlled trial being conducted in Ibadan, Nigeria to assess the ability of a clean stove to improve birth outcomes. Sustained usage of the intervention was quantified using a newly developed method of analyzing cooking patterns based on time integrated temperature data from Stove Use Monitors (SUMs) installed on household cookstoves. The method accounts for household level variations in ambient temperatures. We report a significant decline of traditional kerosene stove usage, 84% of women in the Bioethanol arm giving away their kerosene stove before the conclusion of the study (56% within the first month of enrollment), suggesting the bioethanol stove replaced the kerosene stove. This is the first study to objectively evaluate a liquid-to-liquid fuel substitution.

Small scale biodiesel synthesis from waste frying oil and crude methanol in Morocco

Biodiesel was produced at small scale by transesterification of used frying oil (UFO) recovered from Moroccan pastry shops and fish frying restaurants. Biodiesel was first synthesised at laboratory scale in order to optimize the transesterification parameters. The cost of the final product was also optimized using low-cost raw materials. The UFO and the produced biodiesel were characterized with several techniques including gas chromatography, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, FTIR, and TGA–TDA techniques. 1H NMR gas chromatographic analyses of the final product confirmed that the transesterification in the chosen experimental conditions was completed. These results were confirmed by TGA–TDA analysis used as new techniques to monitoring triglyceride conversion. The biodiesel did not contain any trace of glycerol, and it did meet the international standards. The transesterification at low cost in small scale conditions was performed at 60°C using 1.2% of KOH and a methanol/oil molar ratio of 6:1. A yield of 80.8% was achieved. The properties of the produced biodiesel were found to be as good as those of biodiesels obeying to European standards. The biodiesel production was also performed at small-scale for individual utilisation. Thus, the product was tested in a kerosene stove for heating and non-modified commercial diesel engine producing electricity.

Awareness of indoor air pollution and prevalence of respiratory symptoms in an urban community in South West Nigeria

Background: Air pollution is often perceived as an outdoor public health problem but the air in residential buildings, cars and offices can also be polluted. Indoor air pollution (IAP) is the presence of one or more contaminants in the indoor environment that has a degree of human health risk. IAP is a risk factor for respiratory tract infection and is associated with increased risk morbidity and mortality in developing countries. Objective: The present study determined the relationship between awareness of IAP and prevalence of respiratory symptoms. Methods: This was a descriptive cross-sectional study. Respondents were selected using a multistage sampling technique. Data were collected using structured questionnaires with the aid of interviewers. Results: Two hundred and thirty-nine (95.6%) of 250 who were given questionnaires responded. One hundred and fifty (62.8%) of respondents were aware of IAP. The major source of their information was through the radio in 57 (23.8%). One hundred and four (43.5%) prepare food on the corridor with cooking with a kerosene stove, and 211 (88.3%) were using mosquito coil. Shortness of breath was reported by 49 (20.5%) while 25 (10.5%) expectorated phlegm. Respondents with exposure to tobacco smoke in the indoor environment had a 12-fold likelihood of having phlegm and an 8-fold likelihood of having shortness of breath. Conclusion: The level of awareness of IAP by the respondents was low in this study. Indoor smoking was a major determinant of respiratory symptoms. There is thus, a need for widespread health promotion to raise awareness about IAP and its effects.

Development and Implementation of a Proto-type Pop-Corn Machine with Aluminium and Glass for Nigeria

This paper involves designing the system and also constructing a unit that can be used to pop cereals. In the olden days, crude and tedious methods were used for popping corn until this machine was discovered, its operation is simple, it does not waste energy or time, and it can pop large quantities of corn within a short time. And lastly, it can be operated automatically. The popcorn-making machine is constructed with locally made materials at a reduced cost.The con popcorn machine is one of the fastest means of converting corn into another substance in a faster way than using kerosene stove, firewood or other primitive sources. The Bill of Engineering Measurement and Evaluation was estimated as (N 51,300 or $ 213.75) with the choice of materials used, the cost of production and maintenance of the machine is considerably fair and the durability is reliable.

An Epidaemiological study of Burn Injuries

Background: Burn is the most devasting of all the injuries and a major global public health crisis. Only limited studies have evaluated the epidemiological trends of burn injury. Aim: To evaluate prospectively epidemiological aspects of burn injury in the hospital situated in the central part of India. Study design: The consecutive 360 cases of burns admitted in our hospital were analyzed prospectively to review the scenario of burn over a period of 3 years. Results: The study revealed female (68.81%) predominance with female to male ratio of 2.2:1. Most of the victims of burn were between the ages of 21 to 30 years. Married (69%) outnumbered unmarried. Out of total female victims’ majority were Hindus, illiterate and housewives. The domestic burn was common with Kerosene stove with kerosene being the main accelerant. Shock was the commonest cause of deaths occurring within 48 hours of burn injury while it was septicemia in cases of deaths occurring after three days. Conclusion: Young married females were the commonest victims of burn injury. Considering the morbidity and mortality owing to burns, government and other social organizations need to put special efforts for the prevention and education programs against burn injuries. Keywords: Burn, Central India, Medicolegal, Mortality

Profile of Death in Burn Cases: A Post-mortem Study

Deaths due to fire or burns usually result from application of dry heat to the body. In India there are several thousands of deaths occurring due to fire or burns. Unfortunately vast majority of these cases occur in the home and are due to smoking, defective electrical wiring, defective kerosene stove bursts, attempted suicides by self-immolation, homicidal burns of young women by husband or in-laws (Dowry deaths/bride burning). The present study was based on retrospective analysis of burn cases in the period from January 2013 to December 2013 from autopsies done in the Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, SAIMS Medical College & PG Institute, Indore, M.P. It was observed that more than half of the victims died of burn injuries were married women. Females are mostly involved in cooking and most common cause is accidental burn. Burns having total body surface area (TBSA) more than 40% were fatal. The different aspects of burn deaths are analyzed and discussed in detail.

北方型エコスクールを対象とした体育館の外皮性能向上に関する研究

Immediately after the Great East Japan Earthquake, 622 school facilities were performing the function as evacuation shelters. However, the problems such as ensuring of power and water, shortage of heating equipment, and so on occurred. On the other hand, as an important measure against cold for disaster prevention in Sapporo, it has been stockpiling a lot of sleeping bag, blanket, portable kerosene stove. Moreover, an approach to high thermal insulation for gymnasiums was shown in June 2011, and it has actually been attempted from FY2014. The aim of this study is to quantitatively clarify the effects of building envelope performance improvement of gymnasium at Eco-Schools in cold regions designed by high thermal insulation that will contribute to improvement of thermal comfort, reduction of heating energy consumption and strengthening of disaster prevention. The results are as follows: 1) Because eating and sleeping will be main actions at the time of emergency evacuation, there were the most 20 °C or more at the minimum room temperature that should be secured. In addition, the occurrence frequency of icicles was particularly high due to warm air retained near a ceiling and insufficient thermal insulation of a roof. 2) Annual heating energy consumption per floor area in a gymnasium building was 344 MJ/m2/year that was equivalent to 2 times of that in a school building. About 80 % gymnasiums were widely distributed over 20-40 % regarding the heating consumption rate of gymnasium among entire school. 3) There was no case that room temperature fell below 10 °C in gym H for high thermal insulation type designed by external insulation and SRC structure. Gym H had the superior temperature characteristics of minimum room temperature and room temperature fluctuation rate compared to gym I and A for old standard type. It was confirmed that gym H had the thermal insulation performance of more than twice of present standard specification. 4) Inside-outside temperature difference based on solar heat in gym H was 11.4 °C on average. On the other hand, because it based on human body heat ensured by calorific value 34.56 kW from evacuees was 19.1 °C, it can be determined that the design target was almost achieved. 5) The performance values of air leakage coefficient, air leakage exponent and effective leakage area were verified by airtightness measurement. It was considered that the difference of airtight performance was greatly influenced by the differences such as mainly structure type or window sash type. 6) Equivalent leakage area including a confidence interval in gym H was 692-937 cm2, and also ACH50 was 0.41 h-1 (per envelope area 1.68 m3/h/m2). It was confirmed that infiltration heat loss was 5.5-22.1 kW under inside-outside temperature difference 20 °C and wind velocity 0-10 m/s.

Establishing a National Emergency Department Surveillance: an innovative study from Pakistan.

Establishing a National Emergency Department Surveillance: an innovative study from Pakistan.