Land In Kenya Research Articles

Reform and counter-reform in Kenya's land governance

ABSTRACTFashioned within conquest, Kenya’s current system of land governance was designed to facilitate land expropriation for the few and powerful. Post-colonial elites never fundamentally reformed this system of concentrated legal and administrative power over land and continue to benefit from it. This article explores both recent efforts at land governance reform and the numerous ways that counter-reform resistance is occurring and currently gaining the upper hand. The authors argue that powerful networks of beneficiaries create a strong system of control and exclusion around land, producing a path dependency against reform. The challenge for reformers is to overcome these powerful forces arrayed against change with creative mobilisation strategies, leveraging not only the 2010 Constitution and the courts but also public outrage and stronger civil society organisation. Overall, an important reform struggle in Kenya is just beginning, the outcome uncertain and the stakes for the country’s future very high.

Socio-economic factors influencing utilisation of rain water harvesting and saving technologies in Tharaka South, Eastern Kenya

Low levels of soil moisture makes rain water harvesting and saving technologies important interventions for water supply and food production in arid and semi-arids lands of Kenya. Despite much research around this theme, factors affecting utilisation of these technologies by farmers have not been well understood and the low adoption and adaptation levels of these beneficial technologies remains a challenge. This paper extends this dimension with emphasis on Tharaka South sub-county where water scarcity, unreliable rainfall and soil water stress is a major cause of household food insecurity. Farm and social data were collected using a cross-sectional survey design targeting a total of 351 household heads. Data was analysed using descriptive statistics and logistic regression. The utilization of in situ rainwater harvesting and saving technologies was higher for trashlines (73%) as compared to micro-catchments, Zai pits (26%) and Negarims (13%). Socio-economic characteristics that were positively and significantly associated with Zai pit utilisation included household size (p<0.01), training in Zai pits (p<0.002), while total farm size (p<0.01) and land tenure (p<0.01) showed negative co-efficients. Both formal and informal sources of training were important tools in disseminating rain-water harvesting and saving technologies. The study concluded that farmer age, household size, farm size, farming history, training, and formal education were important factors which influenced utilisation of rain water harvesting and saving technologies in Tharaka sub-county. Specific approaches are needed to scale-up resource-intensive technologies (Fanya juu, Zai pits, and Negarims) compared to less resource-intensive technologies.

MAU MAU'S ARMY OF CLERKS: COLONIAL MILITARY SERVICE AND THE KENYA LAND FREEDOM ARMY IN KENYA'S NATIONAL IMAGINATION

AbstractScholarly and popular histories of Kenya largely agree that African Second World War veterans played a central role in the Kenya Land Freedom Army. Former African members of the colonial security forces have reinforced these assumptions by claiming to have been covert Mau Mau supporters, either after their discharge, or as serving soldiers. In reality, few Mau Mau generals had actual combat experience. Those who served in the colonial military usually did so in labor units or support arms. It therefore warrants asking why so many Kenyans accept that combat veterans played such a central role in the KLFA and in Kenyan history. Understanding how veterans of the colonial army have become national heroes, both for their wartime service and their supposed leadership of Mau Mau, reveals the capacity of popular history to create more useful and inclusive forms of African nationalism.

Use of Maerua Decumbens as a Natural Coagulant for Water Purification in the Dry Lands of Kenya

Use of Maerua Decumbens as a Natural Coagulant for Water Purification in the Dry Lands of Kenya

Provisional Findings on Linking Climate Information to Livelihood Strategies through ICTs among Rural Women in Marginalized Kenya

The degree to which ICTs can be utilized in tending to difficulties of jobs keeps on being a rich research zone the world over. In creating nations like Kenya, particularly, the difficulties of defenseless occupations from one viewpoint, and the spread of ICTs access and utilization on the other, make for an intriguing blend that guarantees possibly remunerating exploration and results. This is especially so when we think about that the Kenyan populace is to a great extent poor and country based, depending on subsistence cultivating for their sustenance and different needs. Simultaneously, cruel climatic conditions imply that lone 30% [1]of the land in Kenya is arable, in this way applying undue weight on a more prominent larger part of occupants in the Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASALs) [2] like Kwale, to discover imaginative methods for getting the best out of their generally fruitless terrains.

Critical Review of the Current Status of Soil Contamination in Kenya

The growth of economy in Kenya is an impressive factor for the development, and is considered as improving living standard of many. However, pollution goes in hand with growing population and economic activities. Soil contamination is rampart now days, but it is not taken as of more concern like water and air pollution. The main sources of soil contaminations are anthropogenic activities such as synthetic chemical products, mining and natural sources. This dissertation focuses on the review of current status of soil contamination in Kenya. Secondary data from various published papers were used to determine the most popular contaminants in the soil (Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, Mn and Dioxin). This paper further examines two case studies on health impacts of contaminants, for instance lead poisoning in Nairobi city were carried on children age between 2 to 18 years who are living around Dandora dumpsite area. It was determined that number of them are suffering from ailments that might be attributed to contaminants. Finally, this study touches on environmental legal framework that governs the land in Kenya. It indicates that only laws to conserve the soil fertility are taken into account, but there are no specific laws to protect soil quality against contaminants.

Applying Multivariate Multilevel Models to Explore Arable Land Quality in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case Study in Kenya

Controversy exists on the magnitude and variability of farm nutrient balances and quality of arable land in sub-Saharan Africa with Kenya among those affected negatively. This study investigates quality of arable land by fitting multivariate multilevel model to farm nutrient balance data collected from five agro-climatic zones of Kenya (arable lands). Objectives of the study were to investigate the magnitude and variability of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium (NPK) farm nutrient balances in arable lands of Kenya, study effects of agro-climatic zones on nutrient balances and to determine effects of household resource endowments on NPK nutrient balances. The study concludes that agro-climatic zones differ with respect to farm nutrient balances; that livestock resource endowments and hired labour have positive effects on the magnitude and direction of farm nutrient balances; and that household ownership of large capital resources do not guarantee a positive effect on farm nutrient balances. The study recommends integration of sound livestock practices and application of agro-climatic zone differentiated interventions in future strategies for addressing farm nutrient balances and arable land quality, and the use of large sample sizes and relevant factors/covariates in future analysis to shed additional insights on farm nutrient balances and on how arable land quality can be improved.

Extreme Wildlife Declines and Concurrent Increase in Livestock Numbers in Kenya: What Are the Causes?

There is growing evidence of escalating wildlife losses worldwide. Extreme wildlife losses have recently been documented for large parts of Africa, including western, Central and Eastern Africa. Here, we report extreme declines in wildlife and contemporaneous increase in livestock numbers in Kenya rangelands between 1977 and 2016. Our analysis uses systematic aerial monitoring survey data collected in rangelands that collectively cover 88% of Kenya’s land surface. Our results show that wildlife numbers declined on average by 68% between 1977 and 2016. The magnitude of decline varied among species but was most extreme (72–88%) and now severely threatens the population viability and persistence of warthog, lesser kudu, Thomson’s gazelle, eland, oryx, topi, hartebeest, impala, Grevy’s zebra and waterbuck in Kenya’s rangelands. The declines were widespread and occurred in most of the 21 rangeland counties. Likewise to wildlife, cattle numbers decreased (25.2%) but numbers of sheep and goats (76.3%), camels (13.1%) and donkeys (6.7%) evidently increased in the same period. As a result, livestock biomass was 8.1 times greater than that of wildlife in 2011–2013 compared to 3.5 times in 1977–1980. Most of Kenya’s wildlife (ca. 30%) occurred in Narok County alone. The proportion of the total “national” wildlife population found in each county increased between 1977 and 2016 substantially only in Taita Taveta and Laikipia but marginally in Garissa and Wajir counties, largely reflecting greater wildlife losses elsewhere. The declines raise very grave concerns about the future of wildlife, the effectiveness of wildlife conservation policies, strategies and practices in Kenya. Causes of the wildlife declines include exponential human population growth, increasing livestock numbers, declining rainfall and a striking rise in temperatures but the fundamental cause seems to be policy, institutional and market failures. Accordingly, we thoroughly evaluate wildlife conservation policy in Kenya. We suggest policy, institutional and management interventions likely to succeed in reducing the declines and restoring rangeland health, most notably through strengthening and investing in community and private wildlife conservancies in the rangelands.

‘WOMEN, COME AND ROAST YOUR OWN RAM!’: RECOLLECTIONS ON MAU-MAU GENERAL CHUI WA MARARO (1927–1956)

Little has been written about General Chui (1927–1956), the unique and charismatic fighter during Kenya’s war of independence, yet he worked hand-in-hand with Field Marshall Dedan Kimathi Wachiuri, the overall commander of Kenya Land and Freedom Army (KLFA), also called Mau- Mau fighters. Kibara wa Mararo, later General Chui, who came from Meiria residence, Mugaya state, Kamuiru village of Mutira location, Ndia Division of the present day Kirinyaga County, Kenya, became a household name, and a hero to the then marginalised African populace, after the famous Mbaara ya Rui Ruiru (battle of river Ruiru). In this war of 1953, which took place on the border of Nyeri district (which was elevated to a County in 2010) and the old Embu district (which constitutes Kirinyaga and Embu counties), Kibara wa Mararo disguised himself as a regional inspector of the police. Clad in full colonial army uniform, he was able to trick some security officers and the loyalists who were derogatorily called Tukonia (empty sacks). This made them quickly rush to meet their boss. In a twinkle of an eye, the coded language (kebunoko) was sounded calling the Mau-Mau fighters who eventually turned their guns on the officers thereby wiping them clean in one blow. It is from there that the Mau-Mau high command declared him an army general. Since then, he became known as General Chui – ‘Chui’ meaning the sharp leopard. As Kenya marked its 50 years of independence (1963–2013), with pomp and colour, the sacrificial role of General Chui re-appears as one wonders: how was such a military genius finally ambushed at River Rwamuthambi’s Riakiania mushy cave and subsequently shot dead by the colonial forces? Did the surrendering Mau-Mau soldiers betray him, General Magazine and the other fighters who died of gun shot wounds at the Riakiania scene? Again, what were his political ideals? In its methodology, the article begins by retracing the nature of Mau-Mau movement citing the key issues that possibly caused it. It then moves on to chronicle General Chui wa Mararo as a case study. The materials in this presentation are largely gathered through interviews and archival sources.

Correcting inequity: How the implementation of the Kasigau Corridor REDD+ Project in fact redresses past injustices—Response to Chomba et al.

Chomba et al. recently examined at how present day actions can reinforce or aggravate historical injustices around land, and what should be done about it. The authors looked at the benefit distribution policy and practice of the Kasigau Corridor REDD+ Project (KCRP) in Kenya, with the aim of understanding the extent to which it addressed equity, particularly with respect to historical injustices concerning land in Kenya. We agree with Chomba et al. that land tenure in Kenya has involved dispossession enabled by colonial and post-colonial land policies, which left many local people with little or no land entitlement. However, we strongly disagree with them when they argue that because the revenue distribution policy of the KCRP mapped onto the existing land distribution, it automatically reinforced inequality. In this response, we will highlight several important inaccuracies in their paper that may give a false impression of the KCRP, then broach some of these genuine and pressing land-related issues which we felt Chomba et al. missed out elaborating on, which would have helped inform future policy around payment for environmental services schemes in Kenya and elsewhere.

Improving Access to Livestock Markets for Sustainable Rangeland Management

Productivity of range lands in Kenya is affected by increasing crop farming especially in more fertile range areas. Among the key factors driving the encroachment of crops on range lands are the changing opportunities brought about by markets. We hypothesize that the existing market inefficiencies characterizing livestock markets, especially the price disincentives that livestock producers face, are major risks range lands face. To analyze the effect of livestock market conditions on range land management, we draw on household survey and economic modeling tools. We find that traders’ rent seeking behavior and high transport costs act as disincentives to livestock producers’ participation in livestock markets and influence their decisions in seeking alternative range land uses to sustain livelihoods. However, improved livestock market access enhances livestock producers’ livelihoods and the stewardship of the ecosystems thus reducing pastoralists’ vulnerability to ecological climate variability associated with range lands.

Acacia senegal (L.) Wild. Associates with a Diversity of Beneficial Micro-symbionts in the Arid and Semi-arid Lands of Kenya

Acacia senegal (L.) Wild. Associates with a Diversity of Beneficial Micro-symbionts in the Arid and Semi-arid Lands of Kenya

The link between poverty, environment and ecotourism development in areas adjacent to Maasai Mara and Amboseli protected areas, Kenya

Over the years, Wildlife Protected Areas (WPAs) have been promoted for ecotourism. However, declining agricultural productivity, rising population and a third of Kenya's land surface area being arable; there has been an encroachment on WPAs. This paper assessed the nature and state of the poverty–environment–ecotourism relationship in Maasai Mara and Amboseli protected areas, Kenya. A significant (χ2=44.01, df=1, p<0.05) majority (67%) of the community were poor; in spite of ecotourism enterprises' continued support for conservation, education, employment and healthcare initiatives. Ecotourism enterprises had not adequately addressed access to credit, grazing pastures and capacity building on entrepreneurial skills. The protected areas were facing the challenge of encroachment exacerbated by rapidly rising human needs for land, food and income. It is recommended that ecotourism practitioners should not only establish micro-credit and entrepreneurial skills training initiatives but also initiate fair and long-lasting economic partnerships with local communities.

Combining Sustainable Land Management Technologies to Combat Land Degradation and Improve Rural Livelihoods in Semi-arid Lands in Kenya.

Drylands occupy more than 80% of Kenya's total land mass and contribute immensely to the national economy and society through agriculture, livestock production, tourism, and wild product harvesting. Dryland ecosystems are areas of high climate variability making them vulnerable to the threats of land degradation. Consequently, agropastoralists inhabiting these ecosystems develop mechanisms and technologies to cope with the impacts of climate variability. This study is aimed to; (1) determine what agropastoralists inhabiting a semi-arid ecosystem in Kenya attribute to be the causes and indicators of land degradation, (2) document sustainable land management (SLM) technologies being undertaken to combat land degradation, and (3) identify the factors that influence the choice of these SLM technologies. Vegetation change from preferred indigenous forage grass species to woody vegetation was cited as the main indicator of land degradation. Land degradation was attributed to recurrent droughts and low amounts of rainfall, overgrazing, and unsustainable harvesting of trees for fuelwood production. However, despite the challenges posed by climate variability and recurrent droughts, the local community is engaging in simple SLM technologies including grass reseeding, rainwater harvesting and soil conservation, and dryland agroforestry as a holistic approach combating land degradation and improving their rural livelihoods. The choice of these SLM technologies was mainly driven by their additional benefits to combating land degradation. In conclusion, promoting such simple SLM technologies can help reverse the land degradation trend, improve agricultural production, food security including access to food, and subsequently improve livelihoods of communities inhabiting dryland ecosystems.

Intervention Strategies to Improve Students’ Academic Performance in Public Secondary Schools in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands in Kenya

Fullan (2007) defined school as a community of active people where teachers in a classroom environment convey formal education to learners. A school therefore facilitates education. Schools, whether government aided or private sponsored, have stakeholders who undertake various activities. In light of this, studentsi¯ academic performance has been a key issue in education with many believing that the education programmes are not well interpreted in schools; thus resulting in poor academic performance. This has resulted into finger pointing among stake holders. However, the fact of the matter is that something should be done to improve the current situation. Kaggwa (2003) explained academic performance as the quality and quantity of knowledge, skills, techniques and positive attitudes, behaviors and philosophy that students achieve. The World Bank (2002) further observes that this achievement is evaluated by the mark or grade that student attain in tests or examinations done at the end of the topic, term or year or education cycle. Hence, the quality of the grades and the number of students that pass in various grades determine the level of academic performance. Academic performance is, therefore, a concern of people who have vested interest in schools. They may include parents, students, teachers, proprietors and the entire society that forms the school as a community. Unless all stakeholders are involved, school achievements including studentsi¯ performance may not be realized (Dervitsiotis, 2004). Every student has the potential to learn and become a responsible citizen if given a conducive environment. Therefore, it is worth mentioning that intervening at the earliest stages, can lead to studentsi¯ success. Intervention can be defined as the systematic and explicit instruction provided to accelerate growth in an area of identified need (Kaggwa, 2003). Interventions can be provided by both special and general teachers and they are designed to improve performance relative to a specific, measurable goal. Interventions are generally based on valid information about current performance, whereby realistic implementation and ongoing student progress monitoring are essential. Therefore, for any intervention to be effective, the programmes designed should be based on clearly defined objectives, and the program should be monitored and evaluated (Kaggwa, 2003). More particularly, studentsi¯ needs should be analyzed and programs should be designed to address these. Of more importance is that intervention strategies should not be implemented because they are popular or interesting. Rather, they should be able to address the needs of the students in their institution, given that schools operate in different contexts; hence, no one size fits all. Approaches will vary according to the school context. Student support programmes, behavior modification, life skills programmes, parental involvement and capacity building are some intervention strategies to enhance studentsi¯ performance (Kaggwa, 2003).

Characterization of Irrigation Farm Households and Economic Valuation of Irrigation Water: The Case of Ahero Rice Irrigation Scheme in Nyando District of Kenya

Irrigated farming can play a great role to enhance agricultural development in Kenya, given that Kenya's economy is predominantly agricultural based and that about 80% of Kenya's land area is arid and semi - arid land (ASAL) where annual rainfall rarely exce eds 400 millimetres. However, irrigation tends to be carried out under intensive water use and low water use efficiency in many parts of the world, Kenya included. Household characteristics and subsidized or low water charges have been identified as a majo r contributor to intensive water use and low water use efficiency in irrigation. Therefore, characterization of farm households that irrigate and determination of efficient prices for irrigation water should be a prerequisite to formulation of appropriate water pricing in irrigation development policies. Taking the Ahero Rice Irrigation Scheme (ARIS) that is managed by

Alerts for policy makers extracted from papers published during 2014 in volume 6 of food security

1. Pressure on land in Kenya: T. S. Jayne and Milu Myanga draw attention to the sharp decline in productivity in Kenya when populations rise above 600–650 persons per km. They suggest that there is scope for promoting equitable access to arable land that is still unutilized through investment in infrastructure (pp. 399–421). 2. Soil fertility and persistent food insecurity: Emma Stephens and associates draw attention to the poverty trap engendered by low soil fertility and consequent low productivity and food insecurity (pp. 423–439). 3. Socio-economic and political factors in relation to drought vulnerability: Elisabeth Simelton and associates show that rice, wheat and maize production in middle income countries are particularly vulnerable to drought. Moreover, vulnerability was greater in authoritarian regimes and flawed democracies than hybrid regimes and full democracies (pp. 163–179). 4. Land and water availability in India: M. Dinesh Kumar and co-authors point out that there is a mismatch between the availability of arable land and water. They suggest as correctives, the judicious investment in surface water projects which encourage direct irrigation, replenishment of over-exploited aquifers, better use of green water and a shift to low water consuming crops (pp. 539–556). 5. Rainfall variability: Mintewab Bezabih and Salvatore Di Falco found that the uncertainty of rainfall prevented farmers from choosing high risk—high return crops and suggest that this could be mitigated by weather insurance policies and crop diversification (pp. 557–567).

Community Land Rights in Kenya

The enactment of the Constitution of Kenya, 2010, heralded a new era for communities who had been subjugated in the past when it came to ownership of property and particularly ownership of land. This article therefore discusses the place of community land in Kenya currently.Property rights and those rights incidental to it, like the right to land and housing and the access to these rights, forms an important aspect when individuals are seeking to ensure their social and economic well-being. Land can be seen to be having both a social and economic value and the importance of property has been recognized in the Constitution of Kenya 2010 with its provision in Article 40(1) which states that every individual has the right either individually or in association with others to acquire and own property of any description and in any part of Kenya.

Preferred form of food assistance in remote resource-poor areas: the case of arid lands in Kenya

The increased use of cash-based instruments and strategies for the delivery of assistance is welcome as it is, in general, more reflective of a local developmental approach. However, such strategies require some preconditions for them to work properly. Market functioning is among the most critical of such preconditions. This is particularly relevant in areas where the limitations of local production are a constraint to the possible increase of supply. Moreover, conditions of forced reliance on external sources raise the risk of ‘imported inflation’ which may follow an induced increase in local demand. This has been the case experienced in the Horn of Africa in 2011, when the response to the drought was taking place in the midst of a global food price rise. This article highlights how, in some conditions, a balanced approach in supporting both demand and supply is preferable.

Historical extension of operational NDVI products for livestock insurance in Kenya

Droughts induce livestock losses that severely affect Kenyan pastoralists. Recent index insurance schemes have the potential of being a viable tool for insuring pastoralists against drought-related risk. Such schemes require as input a forage scarcity (or drought) index that can be reliably updated in near real-time, and that strongly relates to livestock mortality. Generally, a long record (>25 years) of the index is needed to correctly estimate mortality risk and calculate the related insurance premium. Data from current operational satellites used for large-scale vegetation monitoring span over a maximum of 15 years, a time period that is considered insufficient for accurate premium computation. This study examines how operational NDVI datasets compare to, and could be combined with the non-operational recently constructed 30-year GIMMS AVHRR record (1981–2011) to provide a near-real time drought index with a long term archive for the arid lands of Kenya. We compared six freely available, near-real time NDVI products: five from MODIS and one from SPOT-VEGETATION. Prior to comparison, all datasets were averaged in time for the two vegetative seasons in Kenya, and aggregated spatially at the administrative division level at which the insurance is offered. The feasibility of extending the resulting aggregated drought indices back in time was assessed using jackknifed R2 statistics (leave-one-year-out) for the overlapping period 2002–2011. We found that division-specific models were more effective than a global model for linking the division-level temporal variability of the index between NDVI products. Based on our results, good scope exists for historically extending the aggregated drought index, thus providing a longer operational record for insurance purposes. We showed that this extension may have large effects on the calculated insurance premium. Finally, we discuss several possible improvements to the drought index.