Kenyan Side Research Articles

Determine factors contributing to vulnerability of fishermen to these disasters

Natural and technological hazards are common occurrences facing the fishing community throughout the world. Statistics show that fishermen on Lake Victoria particularly on the Kenyan side experience many natural and technological hazards including floods and storms.Vulnerability of fishermen to natural hazards is increasingly becoming a global concern. Consequently, fishermen have devised their own local coping mechanisms to the vulnerabilities posed by natural and technological hazards. However, in Kenya, little has been documented on the coping strategies employed by fishermen in relation to the existing natural and technological hazards. The overall objective of the study, therefore, was to assess the vulnerability of fishermen to natural and technological hazards on the Kenyan side of Lake Victoria. Specifically, the study sought to: establish natural and technological hazards affecting fishermen on the Kenyan side of Lake Victoria; examine factors contributing to vulnerability of fishermen to these hazards and to evaluate the effectiveness of coping strategies employed by fishermen in relation to the existing hazards. A cross-Sectional research design was employed. The study population was 40078 which comprised of fishermen, village elders, Beach Management Units (BMU) managers, Government officers. The researcher selected a sample of 625 respondents which included a sample size of 401 fishermen, and 84 key informants and 140 participants in focus group discussions. There were 14 focus group discussions each comprising of 10 participants.Cluster and random sampling techniques were used to select fishermenwith subcounties being the basis of clustering before applying simple random techniques. Key informants were sampled purposively. Questionnaires were used to obtain data from fishermen, while interview schedules were used to obtain data from key informants. The study employed observation checklists. Content validity was established by expert judgment. Cronbach alpha coefficient was obtained to establish reliability of instruments. The data was coded and analyzed using descriptive statistics and presented using frequencies which was obtained to show distribution of responses. Spearman rho correlation analysis was conducted to establish the relationships between the study variables. Results were displayed using bar graphs, tables, pie charts and bar charts to present the data. The findings of the study revealed that fishermenon the Kenyan side of Lake Victoria were vulnerable to natural and technological hazards. The study recommended that more emphasis should be placed on community awareness/capacity building on metrological hazards in the Lake; mitigation and adaptation measures targeting disaster risk reduction in Lake Victoria should focus on addressing the safety of vessels particularly boats and perception of risk by the fishermen and any effort to address disaster risks at the lake should build on the local adaptations because on the overall they contributed to lake disaster risk reduction.

Cross-Border Conflicts and Social-Economic Development along the Kenya-Ethiopia Border: A Case of Northwestern Kenya

Purpose: Kenya borders South Sudan, Ethiopia, and Uganda on the western side. The border is ladened with cross-border conflict involving the Turkana of Kenya, Dasanach and Nyangatom of Ethiopia, Toposa of South Sudan, and Karamoja of Uganda. The cross-border conflicts between Kenya and Ethiopia continue to ravage the social-economic development of cross-border communities on the border of Kenya. Thus, this study focused on managing the cross-border conflict and improving economic growth on the Kenyan northwestern border and Kenya-Ethiopia relations. Methodology: The study used an explanatory research design and multistage sampling. The study sampled the targeted population of 65,218 respondents of the Turkana North constituency. A descriptive analysis of 392 respondents was used in questionnaires, focus group discussions, and observation to collect quantitative and qualitative data. Findings: The findings indicate a high prevalence of cross-border conflicts, their considerable impacts on the social and economic development of the affected areas and communities, and varying levels of effectiveness of various interventions to resolve the issue. After examining the effect of cross-border conflicts on the social economic development of the Kenya-Ethiopia border, the findings showed that locals on the Kenyan side were victims of cross-border attacks from Merille of Ethiopia, as revealed by 76% of the respondents. The study acknowledged the presence of interventions for Managing cross-border Conflicts and Social Economic Development in Turkana County, Kenya-Ethiopia Border administrative mechanisms in managing cross-border conflicts and improving Kenya-Ethiopia relations. The study concluded that the effectiveness of these strategies would enhance the capacity of Kenya and Ethiopia to alleviate the social economic growth of the people and boost relations in the region. The study evaluated measures for enhancing the interventions for managing Cross-border Conflict and Social Economic Development in Turkana County, Kenya-Ethiopia Border. The study documented the state's various actions to mitigate, reduce, or eradicate cross-border conflict in northwestern Kenya. These actions were meant to address cross-border conflict and improve the social economic development of the area. Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Constructivist perspective to the cross-border conflict on Kenyan-Ethiopian conflict allows for a better understanding of how identity, norms, and perceptions contribute to the prevalence and persistence of the conflicts. Such perspectives provide a more nuanced approach to the issues that transcend the traditional economic and geopolitical factors to consider the cultural and social aspects of the cross-border conflict. The study concludes that the effective implementation of the disarmament mechanism on the border of Kenya and Ethiopia contributed to the cross-border conflict and enhanced the social-economic development of Turkana County, concluding that the mechanism for cross-border conflict is adequate. However, their implementation was weak due to lacking resources and goodwill. Therefore, the study recommended that Kenya and Ethiopia address the root causes of cross-border conflicts, triggers, and accelerators by promoting effective institutional policies and administrative frameworks for managing natural resources and setting up official access crossing points. Finally, Kenya and Ethiopia pool resources to boost the livelihoods of their border communities.

Sedentist Epidemiology: COVID-19 Policies and Pastoral Mobility in Turkana County, Kenya

Abstract Authorities have often seen pastoralist mobility as a challenge for public health and veterinary disease control. While the movement of humans and animals can influence disease transmission, authorities often overlook the complexity of these epidemiological relations and ignore the ecological and economic trade-offs of restricting pastoral mobility. This study reviews the Covid-19 response at the border between Turkana County (Kenya) and Moroto District (Uganda), with particular focus on the Kenyan side. Drawing on interviews with Kenyan public health officials, NGOs' practitioners and pastoral households, we examine the treatment of pastoralist mobility in the Covid-19 response. Our findings suggest that, while there is special attention to and investment in extending health services to pastoralists, most of the thinking focuses on their rural location and household dispersal, rather than their mobility. In fact, pastoral transhumance was at times treated as a threat to disease control and national public health while other forms of cross-border mobility continued. We apply the concept of 'sedentist bias' to suggest that this understanding of pastoral mobility has become entrenched in the technics of public health planning.

Ecological integrity of a medium‐sized river of a lake basin towards ecosystem health management

AbstractThis study demonstrates the use of a multi‐metric Fish Index of Biotic Integrity (FIBI) for assessment of ecological health of a medium‐sized river, under a gradient of human disturbances in the Kenyan side of the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB). Development of the index is based on water quality, river habitat quality and fish community attributes. The river was sampled from 2019 to 2020 during wet and dry seasons of the year at nine selected sites along its length based on the level of human disturbance. A total of nine metrics representing the structural and functional organization of fish communities were qualified using the separation power of Mann–Whitney U test (p < .05). Metric values at unimpaired, intermediate, impaired and no‐fish sites were used to establish the scoring criteria using inter‐quartile ranges. A 1, 3, 5 scoring system representing high, fair and slight deviation from the best site, respectively, was used in the final FIBI development. River mouth station had the highest FIBI score of 43, with extensive natural riparian buffer vegetation (>20 m) and 18 fish species implying least human disturbance. The midstream section had intermediate FIBI scores of 34–36, with wide natural riparian buffer vegetation (10–20 m) and 6–9 fish species that represented moderate human disturbance. The upstream section had the least FIBI score of 0, with no fish and narrow riparian buffer vegetation (<5 m) that indicated notable degradation. This study presents the preliminary results of using fish and habitat metrics for development of an Index of Biotic Integrity (IBI) for a medium‐sized river in a lake basin, as a decision‐making support tool for effective management and conservation of water resources. The study recommends restoration of river habitat quality for improved ecological integrity of rivers in the Lake Victoria Basin.

Effect of Customs Documentation and Procedures on Kenya’s Agricultural and Manufactured Commodity Exports to Uganda

Aim: The study sought to examine the effect of customs documentation and procedures on Kenya’s agricultural and manufactured commodity exports to Uganda.
 Place and duration of Study: The study was conducted at Busia and Malaba borders, on Kenyan side. The study took place between March and July, 2021.
 Research Design: The study used transversal descriptive research design. 
 Methodology: From the total population of 1860 Kenyan exporters to Uganda, a sample size of 329 respondents was chosen using Yamane’s sampling formula. Data was collected using questionnaires. Validity and reliability of research instruments was verified through the pilot study. The research adopted descriptive statistics analysis and inferential statistical analysis. For inferential statistics, correlation and multiple regression analysis were used. Descriptive statistics analysis was done using means, standard deviation, percentages and frequencies. Data presentation was done in graphs, tables and diagrams. The study conducted diagnostic tests for normality and multicollinearity. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0 was used for data analysis.
 Results: 280 questionnaires were completed, giving a response rate of 85.1%. The results indicated that time for customs documentation and procedures was (β2 = -0.352, P = .000<0.05). This meant that a one-unit rise in time for customs documentation and procedures would result in a 0.352-unit decrease in the agricultural and manufactured commodity export.
 Conclusion: Time for customs documentation and procedures had a negative and significant effect on agricultural and manufactured commodity export. The study recommended on the governments of the two countries to harmonize standards expected on traded commodity and coordinate acquisition of commodity export documents.

Assessment of the Ecological Health of Afrotropical Rivers Using Fish Assemblages: A Case Study of Selected Rivers in the Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya

Streams and rivers are globally threatened ecosystems because of increasing levels of exploitation, habitat degradation and other anthropogenic pressures. In the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB) in East Africa, these threats are mostly caused by unsustainable land use; however, the monitoring of ecological integrity of river systems has been hampered by a lack of locally developed indices. This study assessed the health of four rivers (Nzoia, Nyando, Sondu–Miriu and Mara) on the Kenyan side of the LVB using physicochemical water quality parameters and a fish-based index of biotic integrity (IBI). Fish tolerance ranking was derived from principal component analysis of water quality parameters, and the concept of niche breadth (NB). The relationship between fish species and water quality parameters was examined with canonical correspondence analysis, whereas community metrics and stressors were evaluated through Pearson network correlation analysis. Fish species richness, trophic structures, taxonomic composition and species tolerance were used to generate the metrics for fish-based IBI. NB showed that most of the fish species were moderately tolerant to poor water. Moderately tolerant and intolerant fish species were negatively correlated with a high level of organic loading in the Mara River. Fish-based IBI scores for the rivers ranged from 26 to 34, with Sondu–Miriu scoring the lowest. Our results show that the cumulative effect of stressors can adequately rank fish species tolerance according to the disturbance gradients and further develop regional metrics to assess river health. Despite the fact that fish communities are declining, continual management and enforcement of environmental regulations are important, with conservation and management of headwaters and low-order streams being essential while they are still species rich.

Technology is Culture: Building a Transdisciplinary Team to Address Community Energy and Urban Revitalization Challenges

Traditional development models assume that countries of the Global South will undergo an economic trajectory roughly equivalent to that of the Global North. The reality of climate change caused by the burning of fossil fuels raises the prospect that a new model, founded on renewable and sustainable energy will have to be designed. At the same time, rural locations in North, face devastating economic consequences of an industrial model that has left them behind. Our international, transdisciplinary research team, working in Eastern and Southern Africa on sustainable biomass energy and in New Kensington, PA on rural small town renewal, seeks to understand the intersection of community preferences, technological innovation, gender relations and environmental sciences to develop socio/technological interventions. We flip the development model, bringing African expertise to bear on US-based problems and US-based insights to understand subculture specific cultural preferences in Kenya. This presentation outlines how we work together, the methods we use to engage in creative problem solving and the unique “kitchen laboratory” used on the Kenyan side to assess cooking energy needs.

Relative abundances and palaeoecology of four suid genera in the Turkana Basin, Kenya, during the late Miocene to Pleistocene

Most suids (Mammalia: Suidae, pigs) worldwide are omnivores living in closed environments, but the African warthog (Phacochoerus) has special adaptations for grazing in open environments. Similar specializations have been recorded from Plio-Pleistocene African suids. Four genera, Nyanzachoerus, Notochoerus, Kolpochoerus, and Metridiochoerus, have been discovered in late Miocene to middle Pleistocene locations around the Turkana Basin.We analyse the relative abundances of these four suid genera compared to other mammals, from approximately 8–0.7Ma. The dataset includes most of the mammal specimens collected from locations around the Kenyan side of the Turkana Basin. Species of genus Nyanzachoerus were dominant before 4Ma, but their relative abundance decreases through time thereafter. At the same time, Notochoerus increases in relative abundance, followed by Kolpochoerus, and finally Metridiochoerus. Their peak relative abundances do not overlap: Notochoerus peaks at 3.44–2.53Ma, Kolpochoerus at 2.53–1.87Ma, and Metridiochoerus at 1.38–0.7Ma.We interpret the palaeoecology of these suids based on their relative abundances over time and on published isotope and pollen data. We find that Nyanzachoerus was replaced by its abrasive-diet-specialized successor Notochoerus, possibly in response to a rapid decrease in forest cover. Notochoerus adapted at first to the expanding wood- and grasslands, and then to more arid shrublands. After a period of severe aridity around 2.7–2.5Ma, more variable environments allowed Kolpochoerus and Metridiochoerus to disperse, while Notochoerus disappeared, perhaps having lost its competitive edge. Further changes in the environment encouraged the expansion of grasslands over shrublands, favouring Metridiochoerus. Kolpochoerus persisted in the more closed environments near water sources.

Relationship Between Technological Hazards And Fishermen Vulnerability In Lake Victoria, Kenya

The enactment of the lake victoria transport act 2007 by the government of kenya was expected to improve safety on the lake. The number of maritime casualties would reduce significantly and that this would boost fishermen confidence on the lake. Despite this policy and other regional and international legal frameworks being in place, fishermen in lake victoria still face a myriad of technological hazards that enhances their vulnerability. In this regard need for continuous vulnerability assessment and mitigation strategies aimed at reducing the effects of maritime disasters cannot be under scored. In addition to this, it is imperative to note that effective vulnerability assessment depends on factors such as exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity of the fishermen and other stakeholders. Conclusive empirical data on the extent of fishermen vulnerability to technological hazard in lake victoria is dearth since most available literature are based on reports that have not been rigorously tested. The study therefore sought to find out the extent to which technological hazards affect fishermen on the kenyan side of lake victoria. In order to determine factors contributing to vulnerability of fishermen to technological hazards correlation research design was used. The study population for this study comprised of the key stakeholders in the fishing sector with a sample of 625 respondents who included 401 fishermen and 84 key informants and 140 members of a focus group discussion. The study employed questionnaires, observation checklist and interview schedule to collect data from the respondents. The study found out that the type of lake disasters recorded an insignificant negative correlation with type of vessel, frequency of lake disasters and number of people involved in the lake disasters. Cross tabulation results indicated that 94.3% of the lake disasters involved boats, with 85.2% resulting in drowning. 82.9% of the respondents indicated that drowning disasters were common on the lake. The study recommends that mitigation and adaptation measures targeting disaster risk reduction in lake victoria should focus on addressing the safety of vessels particularly boats and perception of risk by the fishermen.

Playing by whose rules? Community norms and fisheries rules in selected beaches within Lake Victoria (Kenya) co-management

Co-management of natural resources has developed within the premise that sustainable management is more likely achieved through decentralized and participatory governance. For Lake Victoria (Kenya), the introduction of co-management through the establishment of beach management units (BMUs) coincided with apparent increases in unsustainable fishing practices associated with concurrent decline in fish stocks. In this article, we identify what institutions at the community level influence practices and how these shape the interpretation and application of formal rules laid down by fisheries policies. Primary data collected from four beaches on the Kenyan side of Lake Victoria document local fishing practices. We found fishing practices are often contrary to government regulations, despite the creation of BMUs that were established to implement government regulations. Instead, fishing practices regulated by the BMUs are highly influenced by kinship ties and corruption. This analysis uses the concept of institutional bricolage to discuss how norms and rules interact to affect resource management. The findings build on existing evidence which challenges the view that devolution of natural resource management to local institutions, even those that follow national guidelines for participatory management, provides for more sustainable fishing. We suggest the need for a perhaps radical rethink of the design of participatory fisheries within Lake Victoria if sustainable management goals are to be realized.

Modeling of runoff pollution load in a data scarce situation using swat, Sondu watershed, Lake Victoria Basin

Sondu watershed is one of the major rivers flowing to Winam Gulf on the Kenyan side of Lake Victoria. The lake is a source of fish and freshwater supply and also provides routes for transportation. Lake deterioration is being driven by excessive pollution load: sediments (TSS) and nutrients (TN & TP). Previous assessments of run-off load in the basin used simple unit load methods because of lack of data and there is still need for comprehensive information on lake pollution and deterioration. Monitoring of weather and water quality data in the watershed is still low. Incorporation of Geographical Information System (GIS) and remote sensing based tools are options to improve data assembly and pollution load assessment. This study used Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) to simulate temporal-spatial distribution of surface water runoff (river flow), sediment and nutrient generation in Sondu watershed, and to identify soil erosion and nutrient source hot spots. Annual sediment generation to the lake is 80,000 t/yr composed of mainly silt while TN & TP are 3,388 t/yr & 312 t/yr, respectively. Sediment and nutrients are mainly generated from agricultural crop areas at downstream, central (Sondu) and upstream West (lower Kisii/Nyamira) area of the watershed while the high water runoff yielding areas are upstream (Kericho/Kisii/Kericho) areas. The nutrients peak periods lagged behind sediments’ by one to two months on average. Consideration of afforestation and adoption of best management practices such as filters on crop areas would be useful in reduction of pollution load to the lake and land conservation. Key Words: Lake Victoria, Sondu watershed, Pollution load, SWAT model

Some Like It Hot: The Influence and Implications of Climate Change on Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei) and Coffee Production in East Africa

The negative effects of climate change are already evident for many of the 25 million coffee farmers across the tropics and the 90 billion dollar (US) coffee industry. The coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei), the most important pest of coffee worldwide, has already benefited from the temperature rise in East Africa: increased damage to coffee crops and expansion in its distribution range have been reported. In order to anticipate threats and prioritize management actions for H. hampei we present here, maps on future distributions of H. hampei in coffee producing areas of East Africa. Using the CLIMEX model we relate present-day insect distributions to current climate and then project the fitted climatic envelopes under future scenarios A2A and B2B (for HADCM3 model). In both scenarios, the situation with H. hampei is forecasted to worsen in the current Coffea arabica producing areas of Ethiopia, the Ugandan part of the Lake Victoria and Mt. Elgon regions, Mt. Kenya and the Kenyan side of Mt. Elgon, and most of Rwanda and Burundi. The calculated hypothetical number of generations per year of H. hampei is predicted to increase in all C. arabica-producing areas from five to ten. These outcomes will have serious implications for C. arabica production and livelihoods in East Africa. We suggest that the best way to adapt to a rise of temperatures in coffee plantations could be via the introduction of shade trees in sun grown plantations. The aims of this study are to fill knowledge gaps existing in the coffee industry, and to draft an outline for the development of an adaptation strategy package for climate change on coffee production. An abstract in Spanish is provided as S1.

Perfluorinated Compounds Distribution and Source Identification in Sediments of Lake Victoria Gulf Basin

Perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate were determined in the sediments from Winam Gulf, which is in the Kenyan side of Lake Victoria and in its source rivers. The sources of perfluorinated compounds within the Gulf of Lake Victoria have been identified and their levels determined for the first time, in this study, using SPE and HPLC-MS-MS analytical methodology. Variability in the concentrations of perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate ranged from 1.4–99.1 and <1–57.5 ng/g in river sediments, respectively, which was higher than concentrations obtained from lake sediments (range perfluorooctanoic acid <1–24.1 ng/g and perfluorooctane sulfonate <1–4.0 ng/g). The results obtained suggested generalized point sources such as domestic and industrial waste indicated by significant correlation and regression of r2 = 0.857. Sampling sites within and near sewage and water treatment facilities gave the highest concentrations of both analytes, and were observed to be the main source of perfluorinated compounds pollution. The lowest limit of quantification was 1 ng/g for both analytes and limits of detection were 0.1 and 0.2 ng/g for perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate, respectively. Typical values for recovery obtained were higher than 78% from spiked amounts ranging from 1 to 150 ng. Quantifying perfluoro alkylated compounds in sediments have provided insights into their source, distribution, and mobility in the Lake Victoria Basin.

Evidence of stenotopy and anthropogenic influence on carbon source for two major riverine fishes of the Lake Victoria watershed

Stable isotope analysis was used to investigate the migratory status and to determine the relative contribution of allochthonous and autochthonous sources of carbon for the major riverine fish species (Barbus altianalis and Labeo victorianus) in rivers draining the Kenyan side of Lake Victoria. The two fish species derived carbon from both C4 and C3 plant sources, although L. victorianus exhibited less enriched isotopic carbon values. Fish samples from stations under direct influence of effluents from sugar factories exhibited enriched δ13C signals. Assuming that this reflects carbon sourcing from riparian C4 plants, it suggests that carbon from terrestrial sources can be a major energy source in some rivers. This heavy carbon enrichment associated with sugar factories was spatially restricted and occurred in all seasons, implying that sub‐populations of the two fish species are non‐migratory. The large migratory populations of these two species, for which Lake Victoria was once famous, may be no more.

Altitudinal distribution of rodents (Muridae and Gliridae) on Mt Elgon, Uganda

Small mammals were surveyed along a transect in Mt Elgon National Park, Uganda, at altitudes from 2900 to 4300 m a.s.l., with the main focus in the Afroalpine grasslands above 3500 m a.s.l. In this study, 13 species belonging to the Muridae were recorded, but only one species Lophuromys flavopunctatus Thomas 1888, occurred in all habitats. The highest species and individual numbers were found in richly structured vegetation in the Afro-alpine zone. Twenty-four species of Muridae and one Gliridae have been recorded from the Mt Elgon NP, Uganda (> 2000 m a.s.l.) so far, two more have been found on the Kenyan side and are likely to occur in Uganda. A total of 34 species of Muridae have been recorded on the whole range of Mt Elgon, two being endemic to the Afro-alpine zone, one listed as vulnerable and one as rare by the IUCN (LIDICKER 1985). The present distribution patterns and composition of the montane rodent communities are a result of different evolutionary histories mainly brought about by past changes...

Estimation of water pollution sources in Lake Victoria, East Africa: Application and elaboration of the rapid assessment methodology

Pollution resulting from increased human activities is threatening Lake Victoria, its effects being characterised by eutrophication and the occurrence of dramatically low dissolved oxygen levels. This study applies a system of pollution inventory methods to estimate waste loads from pollution sources on the basis of functional variables and pollution intensities. Penetration factors are used to incorporate the effects of treatment facilities and of natural ‘purification’ in rivers and wetlands. The application of a basic error analysis provides insight into the reliability of results. A one-dimensional model is applied to assess the overall nutrient balance.Results show that biological oxygen demand (BOD) load is highest on the Kenyan side. Domestic BOD loads exceed industrial loads in all regions, and management policies should therefore be directed primarily towards a reduction of domestic pollution. It was concluded that through effective operation of existing treatment facilities alone BOD loads on the Kenyan side could be reduced by 50%.Nutrient input appears to originate mainly from atmospheric deposition and land runoff, together accounting for approximately 90% of phosphorous and 94% of nitrogen input into the lake. The increase in eutrophication is most probably due to an increase in nutrient input from these sources, as a result of increased human activities in the lake surroundings, such as land exploitation for agriculture and forest burning. Policies for sustainable development in the region, including restoration and preservation of the lake's ecosystem, should therefore be directed towards improved land-use practices and a control over land clearing and forest burning.

Fishermen Resistance to Exit Fisheries

Excessive harvesting pressure is an important force behind the decline of East Africa's Lake Victoria fisheries. The question of entry-exit is, therefore, crucial. This paper uses micro-data collected from the Kenyan side of Lake Victoria to analyze this issue. Results indicate that fishermen are in their current enterprise because alternatives are lacking. In spite of the commons nature of these fisheries, over two-thirds of the fishermen would welcome more fishermen, as the positive externalities of this exceed the negative ones. Opportunity cost of exiting, fishing experience, and whether the skipper of a fishing unit is its owner or an employee, are the significant determinants of resistance to exit from these Kenyan fisheries. Exit inertia usually associated with imperfect capital malleability and attachment to fishing is lacking, or minimal, in these fisheries.

Phlebotomine sandflies of Kenya (Diptera: Psychodidae). I. The validity of Phlebotomus (Larroussius) elgonensis Ngoka, Madel and Mutinga.

Sandflies collected in Kitum cave on the Kenyan side of Mount Elgon were identified as Phlebotomus (Larroussius) elgonensis Ngoka, Madel and Mutinga, a species synonymized with P. (L.) aculeatus Lewis, Minter and Ashford, by D. J. Lewis. A comparison of the flies from Kitum cave with P. aculeatus from Lake Elmentaita, Kenya, shows marked differences in the lengths of: (a) the spermathecal ducts of the female; (b) the style, coxite, genital pump and aedeagus of the male; and (c) the palpal segments of both sexes. Other notable differences are in the shape of the base of the spermathecal ducts; the position of spines on, and the shape of, the tip of the aedeagus; and the appearance of the pharyngeal armatures of both sexes. Phlebotomus elgonensis is redescribed and it is concluded that it is sufficiently different from P. aculeatus to deserve recognition as a valid species.

The fertile past: the Gabra concept of oral tradition

Opening ParagraphThis study on the concept of oral tradition is based on three years of fieldwork, between 1980 and 1983, amongst the Gabra of northern Kenya, an Eastern-Cushitic (Oromo) speaking people who originated in southern Ethiopia and who live today on both sides of the Kenya–Ethiopia border. According to the 1978 national census figures, there are about 30,553 Gabra living on the Kenyan side of the border, mainly in the arid waste of the Eastern Province. In this hostile landscape, in the volcanic, boulder-strewn country on the edge of the Chalbi Desert east of Lake Turkana, the Gabra roam with their herds of cattle, camels, sheep and goats in constant search of pasture for their animals.