Kenya Shillings Research Articles

Adding unmanned aerial vehicles to HIV supply chains in remote settings: modeling feasibility and cost in Turkana, Kenya

Background Viral load (VL) testing of patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) is critical to suppressing HIV. Timely transport of VL samples from health facilities to the laboratory for testing is often problematic in Turkana County, Kenya, and transportation barriers cause delays that can negatively impact the health of ART patients. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), or drones, are being promoted as a potential, novel way to reduce transportation times for laboratory samples and medical commodities. Our study models the use of UAVs in a remote area of Kenya to estimate costs and feasibility of their application for the Afya Nyota ya Bonde project, a large HIV service delivery program. Methods We gathered data from 12 Afya-supported facilities on VL sample transportation and turnaround time, ART drug transportation, and transportation practices and costs. The annual cost and average turnaround time for the transportation of VL samples and ART drugs was calculated using baseline data from the program to establish a comparison for scenarios that use a UAV. We then designed and costed four transportation scenarios that used UAVs to pick up VL samples and deliver ART drugs through a logistics company that will be adding UAV services. Results The modeled scenarios demonstrate that UAVs could transport nearly 100% of VL samples to the lab within the three-day goal compared to the 3% that are transported under the current system. Additionally, using UAVs could reduce the burden on health workers who must personally transport the samples, reducing opportunity costs resulting from facility closures due to provider absence. However, the UAV scenario cost more than three times the current costs (US$ 56,350/Kenyan Shillings (KSh) 5,635,000 per year compared to between US$ 172,878/Ksh 17,287,800 and US$ 200,208/Ksh 20,020,800), and the consolidation of VL testing days required to accommodate the UAV may be problematic for ART patients. Conclusions As the cost of UAV transport declines, this technology could be an important tool for optimizing the transport of lab samples and medications.

Improved response to selection in dairy goat breeding programme through reproductive technology and genomic selection in the tropics

• Incorporation of reproductive technologies improved response to selection in dairy goats breeding programme in the tropics. • AI-Liquid semen realised high response to selection compared to natural mating and AI-Frozen dairy goats breeding programme. • Genomic selection improved response to selection compared to conventional scheme in dairy goats breeding programme. It was reasoned that, incorporating reproductive technologies and genomic selection in the current dairy goats breeding programme would generate higher response to selection compared to use of natural mating in the current conventional breeding programme. This premise was tested by deterministic simulation approach and compared to the current breeding programme where natural mating and conventional breeding programme is used in the tropics. Two breeding schemes with three breeding strategies were simulated. The first scheme was conventional breeding scheme (CS) which represented the current dairy goat-breeding programme in the tropics. An alternative scheme was genomic breeding scheme (GS). Each scheme was evaluated with three mating strategies. They include; conventional scheme using natural mating (CNM), AI-Liquid semen (CLS) and AI-Frozen semen (CFS), and genomic scheme using natural mating (GNM), AI-Liquid semen (GLS) and AI-Frozen semen (GFS) strategies, with 5% of the total population in the nucleus and 95 % in the commercial. The current study found that CLS and GLS were superior compared to CFS and GFS, and CNM and GNM strategies in terms of annual genetic gain, returns and profit per doe per year. The CLS realised additional Kenya Shillings (KES) 3.00 and 3.61, 151.31 and KES 46.72, 148.89 and 47.81, in genetic gain, returns and profitability compared to CNM and CFS, respectively. The CLS incurred low costs KES 23.38 compared to CFS with KES 24.47 but higher than CNM with KES 20.96. On the other hand, CFS strategy has generated additional returns KES 104.59 and profit KES 101.08 but lower by KES 0.61 in genetic gain compared to CNM strategy. Implementation of genomic scheme has generated additional improvement across the three mating strategies in all the parameters measured compared to the conventional scheme. The GS realised additional KES 11.54, 10.80 and 10.21 in genetic gain, KES 161.30, 183.48 and 175.90 returns, and 136.30, 158.48 and 150.90 profit in the GNM, GLS and GFS, respectively, compared to those realised in CNM, CLS and CFS. Genetic gain increased with increased nucleus population size up to 15 % and thereafter, it declines in both CS and GS schemes with optimal nucleus size ranging between 14 % and 16 %. In conclusion, the current study demonstrated that adoption of reproductive technologies such as AI would optimize response to selection in dairy goat breeding programs in the tropics. The response to selection in such breeding programmes could be maximized in combination with genomic selection.

Will Households Invest in Safe Sanitation? Results from an Experimental Demand Trial in Nakuru, Kenya.

Unsafe sanitation is an increasing public health concern for rapidly expanding cities in low-income countries. Understanding household demand for improved sanitation infrastructure is critical for planning effective sanitation investments. In this study, we compared the stated and revealed willingness to pay (WTP) for high-quality, pour-flush latrines among households in low-income areas in the city of Nakuru, Kenya. We found that stated WTP for high-quality, pour-flush latrines was much lower than market prices: less than 5% of households were willing to pay the full costs, which we estimated between 87,100–82,900 Kenyan Shillings (KES), or 871–829 USD. In addition, we found large discrepancies between stated and revealed WTP. For example, 90% of households stated that they would be willing to pay a discounted amount of 10,000 KES (100 USD) for a high-quality, pour-flush latrine, but only 10% of households redeemed vouchers at this price point (paid via six installment payments). Households reported that financial constraints (i.e., lack of cash, other spending priorities) were the main barriers to voucher redemption, even at highly discounted prices. Our results emphasize the importance of financial interventions that address the sizable gaps between the costs of sanitation products and customer demand among low-income populations.

How Has COVID-19 Related Income Loss and Household Stress Affected Adolescent Mental Health in Kenya?

Background: Adolescent mental health has been under-researched, particularly in Africa. COVID-19 related household economic stress, coupled with school closures, will likely have adverse effects on adolescent mental health. We investigate the relationship between adolescent mental health, adult income loss, and household dynamics during the pandemic in Kenya. Methods: A mobile phone-based survey was conducted with one adult and adolescent (age 10-19 years) pair from a sample of households identified through previous cohort studies in three Kenyan counties (Nairobi, Kilifi, Kisumu). Survey questions covered education, physical and mental health, and COVID-19 related impacts on job loss, food insecurity, and healthcare seeking. Logistic regression models were fit to explore relationships between adult income loss, household dynamics, food insecurity, adult and adolescent depressive symptoms (defined as PHQ-2 score ≤ 2). Findings: A total of 2,224 adult – adolescent pairs (Nairobi n=814; Kilifi n=914; Kisumu n=496) completed the survey. Of all adolescents, 36% reported depressive symptoms, highest among older (15-19 years) boys. Adult complete loss of income was associated with adult and adolescent skipping meals, adult depressive symptoms, household tensions/violence. Adolescents had 2.5 higher odds of depressive symptoms if COVID-19 was causing them to skip meals (Odds Ratio (OR)=2.5; 95% Confidence Intervals (CI): 2.0, 3.1) and if their adult head of household reported depressive symptoms (OR=2.6; 95% CI: 2.1, 3.2). Adolescents also had 2.5 higher odds of skipping necessary health services if their adult head of household had lost full income (OR=2.5; 95% CI: 1.6, 3.9). Interpretation: Income loss during the pandemic adversely affects food insecurity, household dynamics, and healthcare-seeking behavior, worsening adolescent depressive symptoms. With schools re-opening, adolescent mental health should be formally addressed, potentially through cash transfers, school or community-based psychosocial programming.Funding: Innovation for Poverty Action, University of California San Diego, UK Foreign Commonwealth and Development OfficeDeclaration of Interest: No conflict of interests to declare.Ethical Approval: We received ethical approval from both the Population Council IRB (p936) and AMREF ESRC (P803/2020). Participants 18 years and over provided verbal informed consent, and those under 18 provided verbal assent with parent or guardian consent. Participants were told they could terminate the survey at any time or refuse to answer specific questions. Participants wereinformed beforehand that they would be paid 100 Kenyan shillings (~US$1) for their time(transferred via mPesa mobile money).

Dietary intake and cognitive development among children in Kisumu county, Kenya

Varied nutrient-dense and high-quality diet are key to ideal growth and cognitive function in the early years of life. Nutrient deficiency can lead to negative functional effects of the brain and poor cognitive function. High rates of poverty in developing countries predispose children to malnutrition. This study aimed at exploring factors associated with dietary intake and cognitive development among children in Kisumu County, Kenya.This was across-sectional study survey that recruited 192 children aged less than 24 months. Food frequency questionnaire and Bayleys Scale for Infant Development kit was used to collect data.It was revealed that a total of 51% were girls with 30% aged below 6 months. Only 12%had cognitive scores above average. Child cognitive scores were linked with age (p= 0.022), carbohydrate (p=0.021), fat (p=0.011) and iron (p=0.022) intake. Only 34% and 32% of children consumed diets adequate in proteins and iron,respectively. Of children aged above 18 months, only 13% consumed diet adequate in iron. Factors associated with carbohydrate intake included:mother's marital status (p=0.036) and her level of income (p=0.028) while protein intake related to the type of housing (p=0.013). Fat intake was linked with the mother's marital status (p=0.009) and her level of income (p=0.001) while the iron intake was linked to the mother's level of income (p=<0.001) and her educational level (p< 0.001). Vitamin A intake was linked to the ability to pay rent by the household (p=0.016). Further analysis revealed that children whose fathers were earning more than Kenya shillings 3000.00 per month had 0.2 times lower risk of being above average on cognitive scores compared to those whose fathers were earning less than Kenya shillings 3000.00 per month,while those with an inadequate intake of carbohydrate had 8 times more risk of having cognitive scores above average compared to those whose diets were adequate.In conclusion, majority of children consumed diets inadequate in protein and iron while 12% of children had cognitive scores above average. Mother’s marital status, education and income influenced child’s dietary intake while their age groups and father’s income were associated with child's cognitive outcomes.Policies to enhance parental education and income level should be formulated to improve child's dietary and cognitive outcomes.

The Impact of Local Agrobiodiversity and Food Interventions on Cost, Nutritional Adequacy, and Affordability of Women and Children's Diet in Northern Kenya: A Modeling Exercise.

Wild plant species are often excellent sources of micronutrients and have the potential to promote healthy living, yet they are under-exploited. Distribution of micronutrient powders as diet supplements can play an effective role in reducing micronutrient deficiencies among infants and young children. However, assessing their effects in ensuring a nutritious diet at low cost have been limited. This study assessed the impact of including wild plant species and micronutrient powders in modeled optimized lowest-cost diets for women and children in rural Kenya. Market surveys, focus group discussions in six villages and a 24-h dietary intake recall were used to collect data that were subsequently entered in the cost of diet linear programming tool to model lowest-cost nutritious diets for women and children in Turkana County, Kenya. Three wild vegetables, three wild fruits, and micronutrient powder were added to the models to assess their impact on the cost and the nutrient adequacy of the diets. A locally adapted cost optimized nutritious diet without any intervention costs between 50 and 119 Kenyan shillings (KES) daily ($0.5 to $1.2) for children between 6 and 23 months and 173 to 305 KES ($1.8 to $2.9) for women. Addition of the three wild vegetables resulted in cost reductions between 30 and 71% as well as making up for iron and zinc gaps. The micronutrient powder had an insignificant effect on diet cost and filling nutrient gaps. Edible wild plant species, specifically wild vegetables, can reduce diet costs in considerable proportions while filling nutrient gaps year-round. However, affordability of a nutritious diet remains a major challenge in Turkana County, irrespective of the wealth group.

ADOPTION AND IMPACT OF IMPROVED PIGEON PEAS ON FARMING HOUSEHOLD POVERTY IN SEMI-ARID SOUTH EAST KENYA

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to assess the factors influencing adoption of improved pigeon peas in semi-arid South Eastern Kenya and to evaluate the impact of adoption on households’ poverty.
 Methodology: The study used cross sectional data gathered through household survey to establish the factors influencing improved pigeon pea adoption. Propensity score matching approach was further used to assess the impact of adoption on households’ poverty.
 Findings: The results show that farmers’ access to improved pigeon pea seed, contact with agricultural extension service providers and access to market information significantly influenced adoption (p< 0.001). Adopters and non-adopters got an average net farm income of Kenya shillings (KES) 29,570 and 21, 490 per acre per year respectively. Adoption of improved pigeon peas resulted in a decrease of head count poverty by 0.24% and a reduction of poverty gap and poverty severity by 0.30% and 0.20 % respectively.
 Contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study recommends that both National and County Government make policies that create enabling environment for private sector participation in production of certified seed to improve farmers’ access to improved seed to augment production. Facilitating farmers’ improved access to reliable and timely market information will increase production of marketable surplus of the peas that are adaptable to semi-arid areas, increase fall income and contribute to reduction of rural poverty.

Examining user fee reductions in public primary healthcare facilities in Kenya, 1997\u20132012: effects on the use and content of antenatal care

BackgroundIn 2004, The Kenyan government removed user fees in public dispensaries and health centers and replaced them with registration charges of 10 and 20 Kenyan shillings (2004 $US 0.13 and $0.25), respectively. This was termed the 10/20 policy. We examined the effect of this policy on the coverage, timing, source, and content of antenatal care (ANC), and the equity in these outcomes.MethodsData from the 2003, 2008/9 and 2014 Kenya Demographic and Health Surveys were pooled to investigate women’s ANC care-seeking. We conducted an interrupted time series analysis to assess the impact of the 10/20 policy on the levels of and trends in coverage for 4+ ANC contacts among all women; early ANC initiation and use of public facility-based care among 1+ ANC users; and use of public primary care facilities and receipt of good content, or quality, of ANC among users of public facilities. All analyses were conducted at the population level and separately for women with higher and lower household wealth.ResultsThe policy had positive effects on use of 4+ ANC among both better-off and worse-off women. Among users of 1+ ANC, the 10/20 policy had positive effects on early ANC initiation at the population-level and among better-off women, but not among the worse-off. The policy was associated with reduced use of public facility-based ANC among better-off women. Among worse-off users of public facility-based ANC, the 10/20 policy was associated with reduced use of primary care facilities and increased content of ANC.ConclusionsThis study highlights mixed findings on the impact of the 10/20 policy on ANC service-seeking and content of care. Given the reduced use of public facilities among the better-off and of primary care facilities among the worse-off, this research also brings into question the mechanisms through which the policy achieved any benefits and whether reducing user fees is sufficient for equitably increasing healthcare access.

Effect of a Prize-Linked Savings Intervention on Savings and Healthy Behaviors Among Men in Kenya

Interventions to reduce men's alcohol use and risky sexual behaviors are essential for reducing new HIV infections in high-prevalence settings in sub-Saharan Africa. Prize-linked savings accounts can motivate savings and may decrease expenditures on risky behaviors, but few studies have examined the HIV prevention potential of such savings interventions among men. To evaluate the effect of prize-linked savings accounts on savings behavior and expenditures on alcohol, gambling, and transactional sex among men in Kenya. Randomized clinical trial among communities in Siaya County, Kenya. Participants were men 21 years or older who owned a mobile phone, were engaged in fishing or transportation sector work, and were willing to open an account with a local bank; they were screened for eligibility between September 3 and October 5, 2018. Eligible participants were offered savings accounts endowed with 1000 Kenya shillings (US $10) and randomized (1:1) to receive weekly lottery-based rewards contingent on growth in savings balance or to a control group that received standard interest. The primary outcome was an indicator of whether a participant saved any money in the bank account (intent-to-treat analysis) during the study period. Secondary outcomes included total amount saved in the bank account, total amount saved in all sources, and expenditures on alcohol, gambling, and transactional sex. A total of 425 men were screened, 329 (77.4%) met eligibility criteria, 300 (70.6%) were enrolled (with 152 randomized to the intervention group and 148 to the control group), and 270 of 300 (90.0%) opened bank accounts. Participants' mean age was 33.7 years (interquartile range, 13.5 years), 84.3% (253 of 300) were married, and the mean weekly earnings were US $30 (interquartile range, US $23). During a mean (SD) follow-up of 9 (2) weeks, 37.3% (50 of 134) in the intervention group saved money in a bank account vs 27.2% (37 of 136) in the control group, although the difference was not statistically significant (odds ratio, 1.62; 95% CI, 0.96-2.74). The intervention group had higher growth in bank savings balances (US $10.26; 95% CI, US $5.00-US $58.20 vs US $4.87; 95% CI, US $0.67-US $9.00) and higher total savings from all sources (US $201; 95% CI, US $133-US $269 vs US $145; 95% CI, US $88-US $202), but neither difference was statistically significant. The intervention did not have a significant effect on alcohol, gambling, and transactional sex expenditures. Prize-linked savings accounts modestly increased savings among high-risk men in Kenya over a 9-week period, but the difference compared with standard-interest savings accounts was not significant. Testing of more powerful savings products is needed to assess whether such savings-led interventions can reduce men's expenditures on alcohol, gambling, and transactional sex. Social Science Registry identifier: AEARCTR-0003224, and ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT04013295.

The social demographic, social economic characteristics and health status of lactating mothers in Mwanamukia. A Case of Nairobi Metropolis

Socio-economic status is a multi-factorial condition which is embedded in environmental, material and personal characteristics. The aim of this study was to determine the social demographic and social economic characteristics of lactating mothers in Mwanamukia, Nairobi and their health condition. This cross sectional study was conducted on 260 purposively selected lactating women living in Mwanamukia, Nairobi Kenya. A structured, validated and pre-tested questionnaire was used to obtain information on social, economic and demographic characteristics and the health staus. Data was entered into SPSS version 20 and analyzed using descriptive statistics and Pearson correlation coefficient was used to determine associations. Majority of the respondents were married (62.7%) or single (25.4%). 44.4% had achieved primary school education while 40% had attained Secondary ‘O’ level education. The maximum number of people living in households was 12 while the average number was 6. The study had respondents from different ethnic backgrounds. Majority Meru (25.5%) and Luhya (17.3%). The average monthly income was 27, 154.12 Kenyan shillings. Majority were business people (28.6%) and housewives (23.9%). 71.5% of household heads were men while 28.5% were women. Majority 73.5% suffered from fever, worm infestation 12.1%, Diarrhea 2.2%, diabetes 2.1% and HIV/AIDS 2.1More than half of the respondents interviewed were literate, married and lived in households headed by men. A quarter of them were business people, single and had Meru ethnicity. The highest number of people fell in the 36-40 years age category. More than half of the respondents had a given form of health condition.

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Human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) can cause substantial losses. Compensation for such losses is essential to foster positive community attitudes toward wildlife conservation. Monetary compensation for the loss of human life, injury, crop and property damage, or livestock depredation by wildlife is a common strategy for mitigating HWC. We analyzed inter-specific, spatial, inter-annual and seasonal variation in human-wildlife conflicts, conflict outcome and the associated monetary costs of compensation in Kenya during 2007-2016. A total of 18,794 compensation claims were filed with the Kenya National Compensation Scheme (KNCS) during 2007 - 2016. Snakes made the greatest contribution to the total cases (44.8%, = 8,423), human fatalities (43.1%, = 614) and human injuries (76.9%, = 7,772). Elephant was the second leading conflict species (22.3%, = 4,181) and was responsible for 18.8% ( = 266) of human deaths and over 75% of crop and property damage. Spotted hyena, leopard and lion caused 85% of livestock predation cases. The intensity and outcome of conflicts varied across counties such that most human fatalities occurred in arid Tana River and Wajir counties, whereas most human injuries occurred in Kitui and Wajir counties. The intensity of conflicts was strongly influenced by the agro-climatic potential and percentage of a county under protection, rainfall and temperature and their interactions. In consequence, crop damage was highest in counties with high agricultural potential (Meru and Taita Taveta) but livestock predation was highest in counties with large protected areas (Samburu and Taita Taveta). Human fatality and injury were higher among males than females and adults than children. Over the 10-year period, the Kenya Government spent about 3 billion Kenya shillings on compensation of about 30% of all filed claims. Compensation schemes require sustainable funding mechanisms and effective administration to minimize negative unintended consequences. Key words: Human-wildlife conflicts, compensation, snake bites, attack on humans, livestock predation, crop raiding, rainfall, temperature, human population growth.

Who pays and how much? A cross-sectional study of out-of-pocket payment for modern contraception in Kenya

ObjectivesOut-of-pocket (OOP) payment for modern contraception is an understudied component of healthcare financing in countries like Kenya, where wealth gradients in met need have prompted efforts to expand access to...

The Scope of Tobacco Abuse in Kenya and Interventions Taken to Promote Cessation: A Review

Studies have revealed that the prevalence of tobacco abuse in Kenya has continued to rise sharply over the past few years hence causing worries among health providers and agencies mandated to deal with drug abuse. Various reports and surveys by international and local agencies have con-ducted researches that underscore this observation. The economic burden associated with ailments from tobacco abuse in Kenya is enormous. This review explores the scope of tobacco abuse in Kenya; loss of livelihoods as well as the health implications and disease burden. Published articles were identified using electronic searches such as Google scholar, government reports, case studies and Web of Science. Most of the eligible articles were those published between January 2000 and October 2018. The considered studies were evaluated against the norms drawn from the Cochrane Re-viewers’ Handbook version 5.0.0. The existing facts on tobacco use by gender in Kenya show that 15.1% of the current tobacco users were men while women constituted 0.8%. It is estimated that the Kenyan government spends an outrageous 15 bn Kenyan shillings (KES) in mopping up the effects of tobacco abuse annually. The common smoking cessation approaches mainly employed are community-based interventions and media campaigns with very minimal use of medical interventions. Kenya has tried to control tobacco abuse through legislation such as the formulation of the 2007 Tobacco control act (TCA). Knowledge on tobacco has been enhanced through research, tobacco promotion and sponsorship (TAPS), international tobacco control (ITC), Kenya demographic health survey (KDHS) and Global adult tobacco survey (GATS). Despite these efforts, statistics show a worrying trend in tobacco use among the young Kenyan population with several studies confirming increase in tobacco use among this category of the Kenyan population. Consequently, expenditure arising from tobacco abuse has sharply increased both nationally and at the individual level.

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Effective promotion of artificial insemination (AI) by private providers in pastoral areas requires stakeholders’ opinion in shaping the direction of their adoption. A structured questionnaire was administered to 384 pastoralists in Kajiado and Narok counties, Kenya to elicit data on willingness to pay for AI services. Double bounded contingent valuation methodology was adapted in computing their willingness to pay for AI services. Results revealed that 90% of farmers were aware of AI of which 51.7 and 50.5% were willing to pay for the services in Kajiado and Narok counties respectively, for an average of Kenya Shillings 1, 853, reflecting a premium of 23.6% placed on AI by pastoralists with reference to the base price of Kenya Shillings (KES) 1,500 offered for exotic breeds in Kenyan highlands. Awareness, herd size and access to extension services significantly increase farmers’ willingness to pay unlike farm income. The study recommends utilization of existing extension networks of community animal health workers to ensure relevant information about AI is disseminated among pastoralists and perform free AI trials on lead pastoralists’ animals to earn others’ confidence. Key words: Artificial insemination, willingness to pay, pastoralists, adoption, contingency valuation, awareness, Maasai.

Allocation and Valuation of Smallholder Maize Residues in Western Kenya

Crop residues, one of smallholder farmers' most common but overlooked resources, serve multiple purposes in many rural households: they are a source of fuel, animal feed, and soil amendments. They are key to maintaining soil fertility, depletion of which is widely considered to be one of the major causes of low food production in Sub-Saharan Africa. Using household survey data from western Kenya, we investigate the contribution of maize residues to smallholders' agricultural production and estimate their shadow value to be 5.94 Kenyan shillings (US$0.07) per kilogram. Valuing crop residue benefits contributes to multiple social goals, including improved economic evaluation of alternative agricultural practices and environmental conservation efforts.

An Assessment of the Impact of Business Plan Competitions on Enterprise Development in Kenya: A Case Study of Chora Bizna Enablish LaunchPad

The purpose of the study was to establish the impact of business plan competitions (BPCs) on enterprise development as measured by number of new ventures created and sustained, number and value of jobs created, revenue turnover growth and value of assets. The BPC was dubbed “Chora Bizna Enablis LaunchPad”. The study used a quasi-experimental design. The target population was the top 100 national finalists who undertook a one week intensive training at Multimedia University. The accessible population was 52 finalists, of which 45 successfully responded. This number was used as the test group. A matched sample of non-participants was drawn from small business owners in Nairobi County. Data was analysed using SPSS. The results revealed that out of the 45 national finalists interviewed, 35 went ahead to implement their business plans, creating employment for 210 people who earned a total monthly salary of over 4 million Kenya shillings. Their enterprises were posting an aggregate of 13.8 million Kenya shillings in revenue every month, and the entrepreneurs reported an accumulated value of assets estimated at a total of 518 million Kenya shillings. On average, each participant in the BPC employed more than twice the number of employees reported by non-participants and disbursed nearly double the average total monthly salaries reported by non-participants. Similarly, the average revenue of BPC participants quadrupled that of non-participants. BPC participants also reported significantly higher average value of accumulated assets compared to non-participants. Therefore, such competitions are effective for fostering enterprise development and more should be held.

Family Determinants of Transition from. Primary to Secondary Schools in Mbooni - East District, Makueni County, Kenya.

Makueni County is affected by low transition rates, poor participation and completion rates. Access to secondary education in Mbooni-East district is also poor. The government of Kenya set a target of transition rate of 70% from primary to secondary schools from the current rate of 47%, and this is not achieved yet. The purpose of this study was therefore to investigate the family determinants of transition from primary to secondary schools in Mbooni-East district. Specifically this study sought to attain the following objectives: to establish the relationship between educational level of parents with transitions; determine the influence of parental income and transition; describe how the sibling position influenced transition and establish the measures which could be taken to enhance transition in the district. The results of this research were to generate useful information which would be used by educational planners and educational administrators to maintain efficient transitions in the district. Classical liberalism theory was used for the study. Descriptive survey research design was also used for this research as it was the most used method for collecting information on people’s attitudes, opinions, habits or any of the variety of educational or social issues. The study was conducted in secondary schools, in Kalawa division, Mbooni-East district, Makueni County. The target population was head teachers; Parents Teachers Association’s representatives (PTA’s) and all boys and girls in form one, in Kalawa division in the sampled schools. Probability sampling technique (systematic or interval sampling) was used because it removed the possibility of investigator bias. A sampling interval (k) and a random start were used to choose the sample. Research instruments were questionnaires for the head teachers, PTA’s and form ones and interview schedules for the PTA and the form ones in the division. Validity was done to check the accuracy of various skills and reliability done to determine the degree of coefficient of the theoretical concept. Piloting was done to check the accuracy of the research instruments. The questionnaires were filled and interview conducted in presence of the researcher at various different times. The data collected from the specific schools were analyzed through descriptive statistics. These are measures of central tendency such as the mean and percentages. The dependent variable was transition and the independent variables were parental level of education, parental income and sibling position on transition in Mbooni-East district. The findings showed a 45.6 percent of fathers’ who had reached form four and had a mean transition of 2.8 transition. Mothers’ who earned Kenya shillings 7500 formed 12.8 percent and a mean transition of 3.47. The results showed that transition was high to educated parents and low to illiterate parents, the sibling position favoured by transition were fifth borns who formed 20 percent and a mean transition of 2.8. Therefore, education is very necessary for the parents in order for them to educate their children; too, earning is also important for the parents in order to get money to educate their children. Lastly, every child should have equal opportunities to access secondary education, regardless of sibling position. Some measures which could be used to enhance transition in the district included building new schools and improving the existing ones, reduction of school fees and then government’s effort to sensitize the parents on the need and importance of supporting transition to all secondary schools in order to improve access to education in the district. Article visualizations:

Factors associated with interruption of tuberculosis treatment among patients in Nandi County, Kenya 2015.

IntroductionKenya is ranked 15th on the list of 22 high-tuberculosis (TB) burden countries with a case notification rate of 440 cases per 100,000 persons. Interruption of TB treatment is one of the major obstacles to effective TB treatment and control. Since 2009, emphasis has been on direct observation treatment short-course (DOTS) to ensure adherence. This study assessed the factors associated with interruption of treatment among patients on DOTS in Nandi County, Kenya.Methodswe reviewed medical records and interviewed randomly selected persons from the County TB register, among those initiated on TB treatment between 1st January 2013 and 30th June 2014. Data on socio-demographics, clinical characteristics, behavioral factors, family support, health system factors, income, and lifestyle and treatment interruption (i.e., therapy discontinuation ≥ 2 weeks) were collected. We calculated odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) to evaluate factors associated with TB interruption and performed multivariable logistic regression to examine independent risk factors.Resultsfrom a total of 1,287 records in the TB register, we randomly selected 280 patients for interview, out of whom 252 were traced. Of the 252 participants interviewed, 149 (59.1%) were males and the mean age was 40.0 (SD ± 15.3) years. Seventy-eight (31.0%) interrupted treatment. Treatment interruption was associated with personal monthly income ≤ 10,000 Kenya shillings ($100) (AOR 4.3, CI = 2.13-8.62) compared to income > 10,000 Kenya shillings, daily alcohol consumption of > 3 days per week (AOR 3.3, CI = 1.72-6.23) compared to consumption of ≤ 3 days per week and average waiting time at the health facility ≥ 1 hour (AOR 3.5 CI = 1.86-6.78) compared to waiting time < 1 hour.Conclusionwe suggest expanding DOTS services to increase the number of service points for patients. This will probably reduce the waiting time by distributing the work load across many facilities. Intensifying patient counseling and education prior to initiation of treatment could also be adopted to cover effects of alcohol use during treatment and teach patients to take up some income generating activities.

Application of Central Composite Design Based Response Surface Methodology in Parameter Optimization of Watermelon Fruit Weight Using Organic Manure

Response Surface Methodology (RSM) is a critical technology in developing new processes, optimizing their performance and improving the design. In Kenya, watermelon cultivation is gradually gaining ground. It is a crop with huge economic importance to man as well as highly nutritious, sweet and thirst- quenching. In order to increase crop production, there is need to increase soil nutrient content with organic manure such as poultry, cow or other animal wastes. At present, there are no recommended standards with respect to rate of poultry manure, cow manure and goat manure for enhancement of yield of watermelon in Kenya. The main objective of the study was to develop an approach for better understanding of the relationship between variables and response for optimum operating settings for maximum yield of watermelon crop using Central Composite Design and Response Surface Methodology. Response Surface Model evolved for response shown the effect of each input parameter and its interaction with other parameters, depicting the trend of response. Verification of the Fitness of the model using ANOVA technique shows that the model can be used with confidence level of 0.95, for watermelon production. Further validation of the model done with the additional experimental data collected demonstrates that the model have high reliability for adoption within the chosen range of parameters. The optimal value for each factor was found as 17.13tons/Ha of poultry manure, 13.3tons/Ha of cow manure and 18.1tons/Ha of goat manure. At optimal conditions, the actual value of the fruit weight of watermelon was 93.148tons/Ha. This translates to 37.3tons per acre piece of land of watermelon fruit weight for a period of 75-85 days after sowing. In addition, a peasant farmer can generate about 745,184 Kenya shillings within a period of 75 day in one acre piece of land at a low price of Kshs 20 per kilogram of watermelon fruit. RSM has resulted in saving of considerable amount of time and money hence recommended in similar study.

Impact of Milk Marketing Channel Choice Decision on Income, Employment and Breeding Technologies among Dairy Farmer Households in Kericho County, Kenya

The study examined the impact of milk marketing channel choice decisions on dairy farmer household income, employment and breed technologies among dairy farmer households in Kericho County. Data was collected from 432 dairy farmer households using multistage cluster sampling technique. Both primary and secondary data were used in the analysis. Processing and analysis of survey data was carried out using STATA version 12. Multivariate probit and propensity score matching was used in data analyse. Propensity score matching was also used to account for selection bias. Matching results show that the average effect of the farmer household that sold milk to commercial buyers had higher probability of obtaining Kenya shillings 16.00 per day as compared to households that did not sell milk to commercial buyer. While selling through commercial milk buyers had significant positive effect on farmer welfare, majority of dairy farmers were hesitant to engage with them. Milk buyers value security in supply which comes from trusted relationships and contracts. Establishing such relationships is in the long-term interest of the dairy farmer. Therefore, to improve farmer welfare, group formation and partnership development should be strengthened, milk cooperative societies needs to be bolstered and an increased financial investment in livestock markets by national and county governments.