Kenyan Dairy Research Articles

Scale of production and implementation of food safety programs influence the performance of current food safety management systems: Case of dairy processors

An FSMS-Diagnostic Instrument was used to evaluate fifteen Kenyan dairy processors based on indicators and descriptive grids for context riskiness, FSMS activities, and microbial food safety (FS) output with respect to scale of production. Contextual riskiness was diagnosed as low, moderate or high. FSMS activities were diagnosed as absent, basic, average or advanced. FS output was diagnosed as not performed, poor, moderate or good. Four clusters with significantly different (p < 0.05) context riskiness, FSMS activities, and FS output, were identified. Cluster I and II had average context riskiness while cluster III and IV had moderate to high risk. Cluster I had advanced FSMS activities (score 2) while Cluster IV had basic activities. Cluster I had the best food safety output (score 2) while Cluster IV had the most basic activities. Cluster I largely comprised of large scale dairies with FS programs, Cluster II medium scale with FS programs, Cluster III medium scale without FS programs, and Cluster IV small scale dairies without FS programs. The small-scale dairies showed the least performance in validation activities. Medium scale dairies with existing FSMS programs performed least in CCP analysis, extent use of feedback information verification, documentation, and record keeping activities while small and medium scale SME performed poorly in nearly all the FSMS activities apart from the adequacy of physical intervention equipment. In conclusion, small sized dairies are likely to lack an FS program, which increases their contextual risk and therefore their inability to have good performing FSMS or guarantee high microbial safety output of dairy products.

Lessonsi Sustainable Dairy Farming to Kenyan Dairy Sector from the Dutch Dairy Sector

Dutch dairy sector is a premier player in the global arena. The Dutch have also been associated with the world’s most productive dairy cattle in Friesian-Holstein. There are many important breakthroughs on sustainable intensification and successful running of a dairy farm from the Dutch. Kenya on the other hand is just entering the transitionary phase in dairy development. It is already an important player in dairy farming in Africa whose production is second only after South Africa. There are several lessons that the dairy industry in Kenya may be able to learn in order to rise to its optimal potential. This paper, through an intensive interrogation of the Dutch dairy sector through; field excursions, group discussions, expert presentations, and lectures makes important situational analysis of the Dutch dairy sector and compares this to the Kenyan dairy industry situation. The Kenyan dairy industry situation was studied through a thorough desktop review of major government, Non-government organizations, discussions with experts and other major players in Kenyan dairy landscapes’ publications. This study makes cognizant the fact that in designing any interventions in the Kenyan dairy industry it is vital to understand the trends and the drivers that shape the dairy industry in Kenya. Based on these prevailing circumstances it has discussed the vital lessons that the Kenyan dairy sector may learn from the Dutch dairy industry to ensure that any gains from the improvement in the Kenyan dairy sector remains sustainable.

Female Entrepreneurship in Kenya: How do Female Micro-Entrepreneurs Learn to be Entrepreneurial?

There is renewed interest in female entrepreneurship as policy makers recognize the importance of social inclusiveness in economic development. Women’s involvement in entrepreneurship is applauded as a necessary precursor to economic growth of developing nations despite women under-representation among business owners. Many factors have been blamed for this under-representation among them, socialisation and lack of motivation in choosing entrepreneurship as a career option. In Kenya, women entrepreneurs have low levels of education; are in need of business knowledge and skills yet unable to pay for business development services; and are affected strongly by patriarchal structures especially the role of husbands. Yet, some few women own growing businesses that contribute towards wealth and employment creation. This study sought to determine how women learn to be entrepreneurial and to establish hindrances to female entrepreneurial learning process. A survey was conducted on 106 women micro-entrepreneurs in the Kenyan dairy processing industry. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews and analysed using descriptive statistics. Findings showed that majority (76.9%) of the micro-entrepreneurs went into business without any prior business skills. Only 5.5% of them had training in business-related fields before starting their businesses. Another 17.6% had learnt some business skills from previous employment. Social contacts and relations were important sources of business knowledge and skills for 68.7% of them. Rarely did the respondents engage in active search of business knowledge and skills. Probably an entrepreneurship development curriculum weaved through the entire school syllabus would help in entrenching an enterprising culture among women.

Mastitogenic bacteria isolated from dairy cows in Kenya and their antimicrobial sensitivity.

There is limited epidemiological knowledge on udder health in Kenyan dairy cattle that would aid in a pro-active approach towards mastitis prevention. The study objectives were: (1) to investigate the prevalence and distribution of clinical and subclinical mastitis in dairy cattle in Mukurwe-ini and Nakuru Districts, Kenya, and (2) to determine the antibacterial sensitivity of the organisms causing bovine mastitis in these districts. The study involved field-screening of milk samples from 241 dairy cows on 128 farms by use of the California Mastitis Test (CMT) and, if CMT-positive, followed by bacteriological culture of the major causative agents and their respective antibiotic sensitivity to eight commonly used antibiotics. All participating farms were visited twice during the study period. The results obtained during the first and second visits showed the prevalence of clinical mastitis to be very low: 0.9% and 0.5%, respectively; 56.0% and 65.0% of cows were CMT-positive on at least one quarter and 49.6% and 58.7% of cows were culture-positive, respectively. There was no significant difference in mastitis prevalence between Nakuru and Mukurwe-ini districts (p &gt;0.10). Staphylococcus aureus was isolated in 68.0% and 77.0% of samples during the first and second visits, respectively. Other frequently isolated agents included Streptococcus agalactiae, and other Streptococcus spp., S. aureus and S. agalactiae were most sensitive to gentamycin and norfloxacin, and least sensitive to cotrimazole and ampicillin. Knowing the prevalence of mastitogenic organisms and their antibiotic sensitivities could improve treatment efficacy and cow longevity.

Impact of biogas digesters on wood utilisation and self-reported back pain for women living on rural Kenyan smallholder dairy farms

Women living on rural Kenyan dairy farms spend significant amounts of time collecting wood for cooking. Biogas digesters, which generate biogas for cooking from the anaerobic decomposition of livestock manure, are an alternative fuel source. The objective of this study was to quantify the quality of life and health benefits of installing biogas digesters on rural Kenyan dairy farms with respect to wood utilisation. Women from 62 farms (31 biogas farms and 31 referent farms) participated in interviews to determine reliance on wood and the impact of biogas digesters on this reliance. Self-reported back pain, time spent collecting wood and money spent on wood were significantly lower (p<0.01) for the biogas group, compared to referent farms. Multivariable linear regression showed that wood consumption increased by 2 lbs/day for each additional family member living on a farm. For an average family of three people, the addition of one cow was associated with increased wood consumption by 1.0 lb/day on biogas farms but by 4.4 lbs/day on referent farms (significant interaction variable – likely due to additional hot water for cleaning milk collection equipment). Biogas digesters represent a potentially important technology that can reduce reliance on wood fuel and improve health for Kenyan dairy farmers.

Use of SNP genotyping to determine pedigree and breed composition of dairy cattle in Kenya

High levels of inbreeding in East African dairy cattle are a potential concern because of use of a limited range of imported germplasm coupled with strong selection, especially by disease, and sparse performance recording. To address this, genetic relationships and breed composition in an admixed population of Kenyan dairy cattle were estimated by means of a 50K SNP scan. Genomic DNA from 3 worldwide Holstein and 20 Kenyan bulls, 71 putative cow-calf pairs, 25 cows from a large ranch and 5 other Kenyan animals were genotyped for 37 238 informative SNPs. Sires were predicted and 89% of putative dam-calf relationships were supported by genotype data. Animals were clustered with the HapMap population using Structure software to assess breed composition. Cows from a large ranch primarily clustered with Holsteins, while animals from smaller farms were generally crosses between Holstein and Guernsey. Coefficients of relatedness were estimated and showed evidence of heavy use of one AI bull. We conclude that little native germplasm exists within the genotyped populations and mostly European ancestry remains.

Performance of Dairy Cows in Different Livestock Production Systems on Smallholder Farms in Bahati Division, Nakuru District, Kenya

4 Abstract: Kenyan dairy industry is a smallholder activity in terms of both milk production and volume of sales. The challenge, however, is how to sustain it amid myriad of constraints. The current study was carried out in Bahati division of Nakuru District over a period of 3 years. The objective was to quantify performance of dairy cows on smallholder farms. Out of the 120 smallholder households interviewed during the preceding feed survey, 60 of them were selected to participate in the trial. They were all trained on data collection. Dam weights and milk yields were monitored on monthly and daily basis respectively over 2 to 3 consecutiv e lactations. The collected data was stratified according to zero, semi-zero and free grazing systems and stored in MS Excel. SAS (ANOVA and proc. GLM) models were used to compare the differences between systems. Scatter plots were developed using Lotus. The study revealed that, of the many constraints facing smallholders, lack of sufficient land for forage production, is the most critical. Majority of farmers owned between 0.5 to 5 acres out of which over 80% was committed to food crop production. Established acreage of Napier grass, which is the most popular fodder crop among smallholder resource-poor farm was low (ranged: 0.125 to 0.5 acres). This was further complicated by farmers' inability to conserve feeds (silage or hay). Consequently dairy cows' performance was observed to be low across the 3 production systems. Body weights and milk yields showed a wide variation both within and between systems. Dairy cows in zer o grazing systems recorded higher body weights (480±75; range: 345-601 kg) compared to those in fre e (338±39; range: 275-410) and semi-zero (397±59; range: 280-490 kg) grazing systems respectively (P<0.0001; r = 59%). A similar trend was observed with milk yield (free: 5-12; semi-zero: 6-16 and zero 2 grazing system: 8-24 kg/cow/d) (P<0.0001). Cases of dairy stock morbidity and mortality due to diseases (tickborne, worms) exacerbated by malnutrition were also recorded. It was therefore concluded that, since little can be done on land scarcity, building farmers capacity on feed production, conservation and utilization would be the way forward. Development of suitable fodder crops, cost effective methods of feed production and ration formulation is therefore critical.

Engendered Analysis of the Socioeconomic Factors Affecting Smallholder Dairy Productivity: Experience from Kenya

ABSTRACT The existing gap between potential and actual milk yield in Kenyan dairy farming and the need to bridge it led to the formulation of this study. The objective was to determine the socioeconomic factors including the gender variable affecting smallholder dairy productivity. The aim of incorporating gender was to capture in detail the factors peculiar to male and female smallholder dairy farmers. A sample of three hundred smallholder dairy farmers was interviewed in the Embu district of Kenya. Smallholder farm households were first categorized as male-headed and female-headed. Within these categories, dairy enterprises were further classified as male-managed, female-managed and jointly managed, depending on who was involved in the day-to-day management of the dairy activity. A multi-regression analysis was estimated using the Cobb-Douglas function to determine the relative importance of the socioeconomic factors in influencing dairy productivity in each gender category. A simulation analysis to determine which farmers would post more dairy productivity given similar resources was done. The results showed that though most households were male-headed, dairy enterprises were heavily female-managed. Male-headed households registered significantly (p = 0.012) higher mean dairy productivity than female-headed households. Simulation results showed that female-headed households would register higher dairy productivity than the male-headed households given similar resources. Overall, economic factors represented by commercialization index, monthly income and monthly expenses on livestock feeds seem to be the major determinants of dairy productivity of smallholder farmers, followed by months since last calving and the education level of the farmers. Specifically, the availability of a reliable market for raw milk (approximated by commercialization index) and access to commercial dairy feeds positively influenced dairy productivity in all gender categories of farm households and dairy enterprises. The monthly household income positively influenced dairy productivity in male and female-headed farm households, whereas access to commercial dairy meals was an important determinant of productivity in male-managed, female-managed and jointly managed dairy enterprises. The variations in dairy performance based on the gender of the farmer calls for the incorporation of gender as a variable in all efforts being made to raise dairy productivity. Mechanisms to ensure female farmers' access to dairy production resources could work to raise overall dairy productivity. The findings also suggest that improvement in the marketing systems for raw milk, particularly in terms of availability of a reliable milk outlet, would significantly enhance dairy productivity of both male and female smallholder farmers. Similarly, establishing of mechanisms through which farmers could access quality dairy feeds or alternative feeds could enhance dairy productivity.

Economic Analysis of Crossbreeding Programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Conceptual Framework and Kenyan Case Study

Conventional economic evaluations of crossbreeding programmes have overestimated their benefits by ignoring subsidies, the increased costs of management such as veterinary support services, and the higher levels of risk and socio-environmental costs associated with the loss of the indigenous genotypes. A conceptual evaluation framework is developed and applied to Kenyan dairy farmers. Results suggest that at the national level crossbreeding has had a positive impact on Kenyan society's welfare, although taking into account important social cost components substantially lowers the net benefits. Farm-level performance is, however, little improved under certain production systems by replacing the indigenous zebu with exotic breeds.