Kazakh Khanate Research Articles

Researsch of the system of protection of the medieval city of Syganak

The article, based on medieval historical sources and research conducted on the medieval city of Sygnak, provides a brief overview of the role and significance of the city in the history of the Kazakh na- tion. One of the major centers on the Great Silk Road, the most important city on the Syr Darya, Sygnak has long been a well-developed culture, economy, crafts and trade, agriculture and cattle breeding. In the XI–XIII centuries it was known as one of the centers of the Kypchak Khanate, in the XIV–XV centu- ries it was the capital of Ak Orda, and in the XV–XVI centuries it was the capital of the Kazakh Khanate, becoming the political and economic center of the khanate. The defensive system of the medieval city of Sygnak, including the fortified walls with gates, has not been sufficiently studied, therefore, within the framework of this topic, we decided to conduct research work, identify the specifics of the city’s defen- sive system and introduce it into scientific circulation. The article examines the results of archaeological research carried out at the medieval settlement of Syganak, analyzes the architectural features of the eastern gates and fortress walls of the city, manufacturing technology and building materials. In addition, a comparative analysis of the Signak gate with the gates of medieval cities in the region was carried out and additional scientific conclusions were drawn. Based on field data obtained during the excavations, the chronology of the eastern gate and fortress walls was determined. Key words: Syganak, protection system, gate, Syrdarya, middle ages, medieval cities.  

Problems of development of domestic historical science in the period of independence

In this article, the author examines the problems of the development of domestic historical science from the proclamation of the independence of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the present day. He conditionally divides the thirtieth anniversary of independence into three stages and analyzes the problems of historical science at each stage separately. He notes the following facts reflecting the development of domestic historical science in the first decade.These are: the establishment of a civilized approach based on new principles, not on class ones, instead of the Marxist-Leninist methodology based on class principles,the disclosure of “white spots”, research on topical issues of domestic history based on new principles and their first results, the beginning of the formation of the direction of personalistic and other directions. In the second decade of the development of domestic history, the directions of the first decade continue to expand and deepen. The comprehensive state program “Cultural Heritage”, implemented in the country in 2004-2011, contributed to the development of historical science in the country. And in the third decade, special state programs “Spiritual Revival”, etc. opened the way for the further dissemination of historical science. The author also includes in this series the celebration of the 550th anniversary of the Kazakh Khanate and the 750th anniversary of the Golden Horde, and dwells on the results of research in these areas. Key words: Independence, “white spots”, domestic historical science, civilizational principle, state programs.

Қазақ хандығы дәуіріндегі әйелдердің қоғамдық-саяси рөлі (ХV-ХІХ ғғ.)

The Kazakh Khanate is the source of national statehood. The study of the history of Kazakhstani society should cover a wide range of issues, including social, political, economic, spiritual culture and national ideology. Analysis of the history of various social groups in the public life of the Kazakh community, including the analysis of the historical role of women in society, is relevant. From a historical point of view, it was believed that the social and cultural life of Kazakhstan was largely patriarchal, but upon further study of the topic it can be seen that in public relations, the patriarchal and matriarchal character went in parallel. The fact that the burden of social responsibility in Kazakh society is borne by both men and women can be seen in the foundations of customary law in the steppe laws. The very stability of the family in Kazakh society is also the result of the narrative of national values. A man protects the earth, a woman protects the nation, because the role of a woman as a mother has a special influence on the formation of a child's language skills, worldview values, and life principles. The purity of the nation's blood is directly related to the strong national principles and family traditions of the Kazakh people. It is important to recognize and appreciate the phenomenon of women in social history, since, on the one hand, it concerns issues of the nationality code, on the other, it depends on the national spiritual nature and foundations of civilization. This article presents a study of the social and political life of women on historical examples of the public life of the Kazakh Khanate.

SPIRITUAL AND RELIGIOUS FOUNDATIONS DIVISION OF THE KAZAKHS INTO “ZHUZES”AND THE ROLE OF BIIES IN THIS

The origin and purpose of juzes is one of the most important issues in the historiography of Kazakhstan. Despite significant changes in methodological approaches to the study of the history of the Kazakh people, disagreements still persist.Zhuzes became a real form of social and political organization of the Kazakh people. Scientists do not have a consensus about the time of the appearance of juzes, the reasons for their appearance and the internal structure.In Kazakhstani historiography, Juzes are recognized as an integral part of a single Kazakh nation and traditionally established unions of tribes inhabiting their territories.As a result of religious and spiritual processes in the Golden Horde, and then in the Kazakh Khanate, the division of the state and tribes into three parts gradually acquired a religious and spiritual character. After the reorganization of tribal organizations and Juzes, genealogical ties and Juz systems played an important role in the sphere of power and ideological relations. Kazakh biys regulated the organization and interaction of Kazakhs as a single ethnic group. This was mainly due to the consumer orientation of the nomadic economy, as well as spiritual and ideological needs. Therefore, the system of genealogical kinship and dynasties played an important ideological and regulatory role in the life of a nomadic society.Key words:Kazakh ethnos, zhuzes, yassaviya tarikat, spiritual and religious processes, biys institute, historical process, ethnogenesis.

Diplomatic Relations of the Kazakh Khanates and the Russian Empire in late Soviet and Modern Historiography

Diplomatic Relations of the Kazakh Khanates and the Russian Empire in late Soviet and Modern Historiography

TRANSFORMATION OF NOMADIC EXISTENCE

Annotation. When conducting a study of the national mentality of Kazakhstan, it became necessary to analyze the transformation of the society of the Kazakh people since the formation of the Kazakh Khanate and the modern, independent Republic of Kazakhstan. The determination is made on the basis of the perception of information from the surrounding reality by society. This is the division into auditory and visual (oculocentrism) culture of the Kazakh society. This is confirmed by changes in all forms of culture. The world-setting of the Kazakhs is aimed at contemplating nature, the surrounding reality without changing it, but living with it in complete harmony, respecting and preserving natural resources. Cattle breeding was the main source of livelihood. However, there is a noticeable respect for the animal. We know everything about the culture of Kazakhs from oral folk art. Associations arise primarily related to the nomadic way of life, in unconditional creation of libraries, somehow fixing knowledge. Reflecting on this, there is a need for a return, to the determination of the Turkic culture, to the late and modern, the need to speak about the principle of this division. It should be noted that Kazakh culture, as is clear, did not survive these stages in an instant. This process took place gradually, settling on the subconscious side of the human mind. Listening to being by the Turkic nomads opens before us a whole world full of features associated with the perception of reality, and its no less interesting embodiment in folklore. Key words: oculocentrism, transformations, mentality, visual culture, nomadism, determination.

TRANSFORMATION OF THE SEMANTICS OF THE TERM AND ETHNONYM KAZAKH (قزاق/ QAZAQ/KAZAKH) IN THE EAST DESHT-I KYPCHAK

The article is devoted to the study of the term and ethnonym Qazaq/Kazakh, which is the ethnic name of the main population of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The article suggests that the term Qazaq comes from the Turkic verb qaz- ‘dig’. Perhaps this term meant young Turkic people who switched to qazaqliq (free, or qazaq style of living), and, unlike the nomadic Kipchaks, used to live not in yurts, but in dugouts that they themselves dug up in forest and mountain ranges. The following stages in the development of the term qazaq/Qazaq in East Desht-i Qipchaq of the 13th—14th centuries are highlighted. 1. In the 13th — the 2nd half of the 14th century, the word qazaq was applied to unmarried young people who temporarily broke off ties with their relatives and went to remote places, where they passed a kind of a school of survival. The term qazaqliq denoted the custom of “bravery and courage”. 2. From the 2nd half of the 14th century to 1465, in East Desht-i Qipchaq (and in the former Chagatai ulus) the word qazaq was primarily applied to Chingizids, who in the conditions of political struggle were forced to abandon their original possessions and take up the qazaqliq. The term qazaqliq denoted the method of political struggle, widespread among the Chingizids, as well as the custom of “bravery and courage” as before. 3. From 1465 to the end of the 15th century, with the foundation of an independent state between Shu and Ili rivers, their neighbors began to call its subjects Qazaqs, and the term became a politonym. 4. From the end of the 15th century until the middle of the 16th century, the ethno-political division of Uzbek Ulus took place. Three ethnopolitical communities originating from Uzbek Ulus emerged: Nogai, Shiban Uzbeks, and Qazaqs. During this period, the term qazaq became an ethno-politonym. 5. From the middle of the 16th century till today, the terms Qazaq/Kazakh and Аlash began to reflect the selfidentification of the population of the Kazakh Khanate, Kazakhstan, and the term Qazaq/Kazakh has acquired an ethnic meaning and started to be used as an ethnonym to refer to the population of the Kazakh Khanate.

КАЗАХСКОЕ ХАНСТВО И МОГУЛИСТАН В XV – НАЧАЛЕ XVI В.

The article is devoted to the relationship between the Kazakh Khanate and Moghulistan in the 15th - early 16th centuries.In the historical literature, the Turkic-speaking tribes who lived in the XIII-XVII centuries were called moguls in the eastern part of the Chagatai ulus. In the middle of the XIV century Mogul tribes formed the state of Moghulistan, which included the territory of modern South-East Kazakhstan (Zhetysu), Kyrgyzstan and East Turkestan (XUAR of the PRC), Tashkent and Sairam. The early history of the Kazakh Khanate is also closely connected with the history of Moghulistan.The main source for the study of the relationship between the Kazakh Khanate and Mogulistan in the 15th - early 16th centuries is the famous historical work of Muslim historiography «Tarikh-i Rashidi», which written by the famous historian and Mogul politician Mirza Mohammed Khaidar from the Duglat (Dulat) tribe. His information was supplemented by materials from other Muslim historical works and compared with the results of special scientific research. Based on the analysis of historical materials, the author comes to the conclusion that the relationship between the Kazakh Khanate and Mogulistan in the 15th - early 16th centuries was peaceful and good-neighborly. For a long time, Kazakhs and Moguls even jointly opposed political opponents, until at the end of the 15th century a conflict arose between their rulers, which began to be settled at the beginning of the 16th century. However, the complete victory of Muhammad Sheibani Khan over the rulers of Mogul Sultan Mahmud Khan and Sultan Ahmad Khan in 1503 led to the fall of the Mogulstan. As a result, a significant land part of the Mogulistan became part of the Kazakh Khanate, the Mogul tribes remaining in this territory joined the Kazakh people, becoming one of its significant ethnic components.

«ТАРИХ-И АББАСИ» («РУЗНАМА-ЙЕ МОЛЛА ЖӘЛАЛ») ШЫҒАРМАСЫНДАҒЫ ҚАЗАҚ ХАНДЫҒЫНА ҚАТЫСТЫ ДЕРЕКТЕР

This article examines the Persian source of the late 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, which hasn’t previously studied by domestic researchers. This source contains information about the Kazakh Khanate. The major purpose of the article is to study information from a Persian source on the history of the Kazakh Khanate, to analyse and introduce into scientific circulation. The major task of the article is to study the original source, translate information on the history of the Kazakh Khanate, and give readers information about the source. In the article, the author worked with a Persian source and applied source methods. To define the historicity and objectivity of this source, the known sources of the period below the review studied, and it carried out comparative analyses. According to the results of the study, it revealed there was a tradition to write several historical works in the same period. The author analyses the similarities, and differences between the two sources and reveals that the sources of one period complement each other, but they also have differences. The article explores the differences between the two sources based on specific examples. Summing up, the author compares the information of an unexplored source with the information included in the scientific circulation and reveals previously unknown facts on the history of the Kazakh Khanate.

About the juvenile direction of criminal policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan: historical background and development issues

The article considers the paradigm of the Republic of Kazakhstans juvenile criminal policy, reveals its historical background and development problems. The article describes the features of the Biy judicial system in the Kazakh society up to the middle of the XVIII century. The article examines the characteristics of applying criminal punishment to juveniles after the accession of the Kazakh khanates to the Russian Empire in the XVIIIXIX centuries. The conclusion is made about the continuity of juvenile justice foundations in pre-revolutionary and post-revolutionary Russia and modern Kazakhstan. The article confirms the ineffectiveness of further lowering the age of criminal responsibility, as well as traditional punishments that provide for the deprivation or restriction of liberty of juveniles. The idea of re-socialization of juveniles who have served a criminal sentence and are released from it is defended. To re-socialize, it is recommended to expand the practice of alternative punishments without isolation from society related to labor impact and the introduction of probation with labor impact concerning juveniles in the Republic of Kazakhstan.

State of Restoration, Study of the Mausoleum of Khoja Akhmet Yassawi (XIX century – early XX century)

Over the centuries, the mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi and the ancient buildings next to it have witnessed many political, economic and historical changes. The holy place, which in the XIIth century was a place of pilgrimage among the people, was transformed and equipped by Emir Timur in the XIVth century. Later, in the everyday capital of the Kazakh Khanate, these places were also witnesses of many historical events, and the article tells about the position of this place, the mausoleum and nearby historical sites in the XIXth century and the beginning of the XXth century. The position of the mausoleum, its premises, fortifications around the city in the early XIXth century, during the reign of the Kokand Khanate, as well as monuments located near Azret Sultan for centuries are described. The fate of the Azret Sultan mausoleum and the mausoleums adjacent to it was associated with politics and events during the reign of the Kokand Khanate and the Russian Empire. The article contains notes of researchers who at that time wrote about the position of the mausoleum, drawings and photographs of research by military and scientists. Particular interest are the written information of the XIXth century left by M.S. Bekchurin, P.I. Lerhom, I.I. Pashino, A.K. Gaines, photos, Turkestan album by V.V. Vereshchagin, the work of an amateur archaeological circle. A comprehensive study of the mausoleum can be found in articles and works of P.N. Akhmerova, A. Divaeva, N.S. Lykoshin. The article tells about the mausoleum, its position, research and renovation in the XIXth century and the beginning of the XX th century

THE SETTLEMENT OF RUSSIAN PEASANTS IN KAZAKHSTAN BY THE TSARIST GOVERNMENT IN THE LATE XIX-EARLY XX CENTURY

The loss of full political power of the Kazakh Khanate in the second half of the XIX century led to the implementation of measures of the policy of settlement of the Russian Kingdom in Kazakhstan. In the first towns that appeared in Kazakhstan as fortifications of the Tsarist government, the army of the Ural and Siberian Cossack Russians was stabilized. This Army served as a point of defense of the border region of the Empire, as well as the only support for establishing Russian influence in Central Asia and Siberia. Due to the aggravation of the agrarian problem in the inner regions of Russia, drought and famine increased the emphasis on the resettlement of peasants to the region. In order to identify «surplus» land on the territory of Kazakhstan, «Resettlement departments» and special statistical parties (departments) will be created, and a program of study of land use and economy of the nomadic population of «Asian Russia» will be developed. The study cards collected data such as the number, age and gender of the local population, and knowledge of the Russian language with a distinctive feature. As a result of the settlement policy, along with the settlement of Russian peasants on Kazakh lands, the construction of forest dachas and farms, etc., which were owned by the state treasury, was taken over. These measures led to the resettlement of Kazakhs to desert and semi-desert lands and damaged the traditional system of animal husbandry.

The reasons for the weakening of the institution of the Khan's power in the Kazakh Steppe in the context of the regional policy of the Russian Empire at the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century

In this article, the authors investigate the reasons, process and consequences of the liquidation of the traditional institution of Khan power by the Russian Empire. At the beginning of the 19th century, the tsarist government began a unilateral elimination of the Khan's power in Kazakhstan, for which sufficient data, military resources and funds appeared in the Russian Empire. The Genghisids represented by the Khans and sultans, who personified the independence of the Kazakh Khanate, were discredited in the eyes of the nomads. The work was written on the basis of written and archival sources; the article contains documents from the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire. In the 18th century, border settlements and trade were the main Russian interests in the Steppe, and to this end, Russian officials were ready to support Kazakh leaders who were loyal to the power of the Russian Empire in Kazakh lands. By the early 19th century, the growing influence of the Central Asian Khanates, as well as the Qing Empire, prompted the Russian authorities to actively establish a more direct form of government over the Kazakhs. Based on the available data, it can be argued that in the case of the display of the personality of Uali Khan in previous historical studies, stereotypes of public perception of the last ruler of the Middle Zhuz emerged, which were formed through the results of the liquidation of the Khan's power by the Russian Empire. In the course of an objective study of historical sources, scholarly historians still find out how much the existing work is fair in relation to a politician of the 18th and early 19th centuries.

К вопросу о взаимоотношениях меж­ду Казахскими ханствами, Цинской и Российской империями. Рецензия на книгу: Noda J., Onuma T. A Collection of Documents from the Kazakh Sultans to the Qing Dynasty

This study, titled A Collection of Documents from the Kazakh Sultans to the Qing Dynasty, deals with 16 documents addressed from Kazakh sultans to the Qing Dynasty (and the Russian Empire/Governor-General of Siberia). These were written in the Oyirad (Mongol) language with Tod script or in the Turkic language with Arabic script from the eighteenth to nineteenth century, and come complete with text, transcription, and translation. In addition, this study includes two essays written by the authors who made use of these documents. The majority of Qing documents are preserved in a collection of the First Historical Archives (第一歴史襠案館) in Beijing. Many of these documents related to the Kazakhs have started to be published as The Collection of the Archival Documents Concerning Sino-Kazakh Relations at the Time of the Qing Dynasty (清代中哈関係襠案彙編) and so on, and to be used for historical research. Of the documents dealt with in this study, 14 are from the Manchu Language Reference Copy of Grand Council Palace Memorial (軍機処満文副奏摺) of the First Historical Archives, one is from Tsentral’nyi gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Respubliki Kazakhstan, and one is from Vneshnyaya politika Rossii XIX i nachala XX veka (Moskva: Izd-vo Nauka, t. 11–12, 1979–1980). However, most of these documents are not included in the published collection mentioned above. Therefore, this study, together with the above-mentioned collection, represents another major step in the study of these documentss. In addition, by utilizing these documents, Takahiro Onuma clarifies that the international world order between the Qing dynasty and Kazakh nomads in Central Asia was not based on the “suzerain-dependency (Ch. zong-fan 宗藩) relationship”, which was heavily influenced by Confucianism, but rather, on the “master-slave (Mon. ejen-albatu) relationship”, which originated in Mongol nomadic society. Jin Noda, who also utilized these documents, states that the title of Kazakh sultans, which has been regarded as a product of the Qing benefit policy, was in fact a result of both the Kazakh sultans and Qing requiring the ‘title-bestowal system’ in the process of the establishment of relations. This system was gradually becoming a mere formality, partly because of the influence of Russia. These findings suggest that the Kazakh khanates were independently developing a “bilateral diplomatic policy” while mediating between the Qing and Russian empires, and they highlight the policy differences of both empires toward the Kazakh khanates. We hope that the fin­dings from this study will further advance the study of the history of the mutual relations between the Kazakh khanates and the Qing and Russian empires.

Features of the Formation of the Foundations of the Foreign Policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan

The article analyzes the foundations of the formation of the foreign policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan, which, first of all, are influenced by the traditions of the historical development of this country, its geopolitical location in the center of the Eurasian continent, transport and communication potential and the presence of large reserves of natural resources. It is emphasized that in modern Kazakhstan there is still no holistic perception of many historical events and processes, in particular those that were hushed up during the imperial and Soviet periods. At the same time, in the scientific discourse of the country, there is a rethinking of national history through criticism of the previous historical experience. It is noted that after the formation in the middle of the fifteenth century. In the Kazakh Khanate, the progressive development of statehood was replaced by a period of struggle against foreign invaders – first the Dzungars, and then the Russian Empire. It ended with the loss of statehood, the struggle for the restoration of which is presented in the form of a teleologically constructed narrative of the heroic struggle for independence, which includes a number of historical events and periods. The process of modern nation-state building in Kazakhstan is based on the consolidating role of the titular nation, which contributes to the growth of interest in historical issues and is accompanied by a gradual loss of the influence of Soviet-Russian narratives in political and historical discourse. A feature of the foreign policy of the Republic of Kazakhstan is a multi-vector approach, which has developed historically and is designed to ensure a balance between various geopolitical centers of power.
 The priorities of Kazakhstan’s foreign policy are determined: the development of allied relations with the Russian Federation, a comprehensive strategic partnership with the PRC, an expanded strategic partnership with the United States, strategic relations with the Central Asian states, an expanded partnership and cooperation with the European Union.

The historical role of kazakh language in the system of turkic languages

The article touches upon the historical role of Kazakh language in the system of Turkic languages, as the former passed on its own way to the formation of different subethnical processes which lasted for several centuries. It comes as no surprise that it is necessary to know well the nature of the given ethnos itself to study any ethnic language. The knowledge of only internal language laws is not sufficient to recognize the original nature of any ethnic language and it goes without saying that its ultimate roots is directly related to the culture, history, religion and way of living of the ethnic groups speaking this language for centuries. Therefore, the way of study the national language through the combined research of the ethnic language, culture and cognition, and the history led to the birth of the totally new directions in the field of linguistics as anthropolinguistics, psycholinguistics and cognitive, social linguistics. The language of that time, which formed the basis of the ethnogenesis of Kazakh people who contributed to the formation of the nation were applied by the tribes and people are considered as the historical basis of modern Kazakh language. As a result of combining and merging all related tribal groups included in the territories of the Kazakh Khanate (Uysin, Kanlу Kipchak, Argyn, Dulat, Shapirashty, Zhalayr, Sirgeli, Alban, Suan, Konyrat, Nаyman, Kerey, Alshyn etc.) formed a monolithic integration of national Kazakh language and acquired a general structure of language. The aim of the research is to define the historical role of Kazakh language in the system of Turkic languages

Аталыки и институт аталычества в Казахском ханстве

The article analyzes information from historical sources about the atalyks and the Institute of Atalykship in the Kazakh Khanate. The materials of the study were the information of medieval works of Muslim historians, including those not yet put into scientific circulation, published official materials of the 16th18th centuries, the ambassadorial order of the Russian state, magazines, and official notes of the diplomat A.I. Tevkelev, data from Chinese sources, etc. The author cites information from historical sources indicating the existence of the Institute of Atalykship in the Kazakh Khanate. The author draws attention to the fact that the earliest information about the ataliks is contained in the works of Shibanid and Safavid historiography. The work gives the names of more than ten persons who bore the title «atalyk» in the Kazakh Khanate. Despite the paucity of materials about the institution of Atalykship in the Kazakh Khanate, the author makes some assumptions based on the analogy of the institution of atalism in neighboring countries. During the study, the following preliminary conclusions were made about the atalyks and the Institute of Atalykship in the Kazakh Khanate: 1. In the Kazakh Khanate, as well as in many medieval Turkic-Mongolian states, there was an Institute of Atalykship. 2. The Institute of Atalykship was one of the important state-forming elements in the Kazakh Khanate of the 15-17th centuries. 3. The main function of the atalyk in the Kazakh Khanate, as well as in other Turkic-Mongolian states, was to educate the heirs to the throne. 4. Atalyk, as the most faithful and close to the khan people, performed the most important diplomatic functions. 5. The role of the atalyk underwent a transformation in the Kazakh Khanate. In the early period of the history of the Kazakh state, the status of the atalyk at the khan’s court was high. From the end of the 17th century, in connection with the legislative reforms of Tauke Khan, the status of the atalyk significantly decreased and he began to occupy a status in the social hierarchy below the clan elders

XVIIІ ғасырдың 50-60 жылдары Қазақ-Цин сауда қатынасында сауда жәрменкелерінің ашылуына қазақ хандығының ықпалы

In the second half of the 18th century trade between the Kazakh Khanate and the Qing Empire, the so-called «silk for a horse», had the status of interstate trade. This trade was shaped and developed by the needs of trading partners. The rulers of the Kazakh Khanate sought to further develop animal husbandry, which was the economic basis of the country. They sold livestock products and thereby solved market problems to meet the daily needs of the population. The Qing Empire conquered Zhonggaria and began to strengthen its power in this territory. While maintaining its power in Zhonggaria, in order to strengthen the defense and develop cattle breeding, the Qing Empire had to solve the problem of demand for all types of livestock, in particular horses. In view of the bilateral need, the issue of developing mutually beneficial trade arose. Out of this bilateral need, the two sides set out to develop mutually beneficial trade relations. This topic is being studied by domestic and foreign scientists. However, there are still many obscure historical issues surrounding the topic. Incomplete publication of historical data is one of the main reasons for this situation. Our goal is to find answers to such still obscure questions. The results of the research work showed that fairs were created during the trade between the Kazakh Khanate and the Qing Empire. At first, fairs were organized in Urumqi, then in Gulja, Chuguchak, Khobda and other places. The holding of fairs was directly related to the initiative of the Kazakh khans and sultans. Kazakh khans, sultans, biys and batyrs agreed to solve such important issues as opening trade fairs, running trade caravans, they always put the protection of the state interests of their country in the first place. The article is written based on Chinese sources, describes the historical role of the rulers of the Kazakh Khanate in the formation and development of trade, including the opening and development of fairs.

Islam in Kazakhstan: History of Distribution and Modernity

This article is devoted to the analysis of the spread of Islam around the steppe in the 8th — 13th centuries, development of religions within the Golden Horde and the Kazakh Khanate, place and role in the Russian Empire. In the work the authors uses a wide layer of archival documents examines the content and essence of the anti-religious (atheistic) policy of the Soviet state. Much attention is paid to revealing the features and characteristics of the development of interfaith relations in modern Kazakhstan, the formation of religious tolerance, tolerance and dialogue in a multi-ethnic society, and so teaching the basics of religious studies in the training and educational space. The article uses such methods of scientific research as historical-typological, structural-comparative, systemic, content analysis. The main results are that the work reveals the history of the spread of Islam in the Steppe, the content of the policy of party bodies, the place and role of interfaith relations in society after the collapse of the USSR, the importance of religious studies in the system of modern education. The field of application of the research results is in the system of researching the history of Islam in Kazakhstan, as well as in the use and teaching of social and humanitarian disciplines.

The 550th anniversary of the foundation of Kazakhstan’s statehood in 2015an assessment from a neutral Central European country

A crucial aspect of the «politics of history» and «politics of memory» of all post-Soviet republics is the relationship to statehood. This article examines, from the perspective of a Central European observer, the commemorations held in Kazakhstan in 2015 on the occasion of the creation of the Kazakh Khanate, which is assumed to have taken place in 1465.Until recently, the history of the Kazakh Khanate was actually not an object of Eurasian research in the countries of Western Europe, although it contained many historical events and facts that influenced the history of the development of regional states and peoples.The starting point for this analysis are statements by politicians from Russia, whose importance for present-day Kazakhstan can hardly be underestimated not only in the areas of politics, economics, security, media, culture, etc., but also represents an important point of reference in questions of «history policy».Questions of the evolution of Kazakhstan‘s statehood and Kazakh ethnogenesis naturally enjoy much more attention among Kazakhstan‘s historians since 1991 than they did in Soviet times. In the present context, such topics are by no means «only» of historiographic importance, but also of eminent current political significance. Strengthening the statehood of today’s Kazakhstan as well as the faith of its citizens of all nationalities in it could contribute to counteracting possible territorial claims by individual neighbouring states. However, it is difficult to judge from the outside what influence the 2015 celebrations had on Kazakhstan’s politics and multi-ethnic society or to what extent they were able to leave lasting traces precisely there.