Kasprowy Wierch Research Articles

Climatology and circulation conditions of potential foehn occurrence in the Polish Tatra Mountains

AbstractFoehn wind occurrence has generated great interest among researchers because of the destructive power and impact on the local climate. Based on anemometric data provided by a high-mountain station on Kasprowy Wierch in the Polish Tatra Mountains, the characteristics of the potential occurrence of foehn wind (referred to as halny in the Polish Tatras) are presented, including its speed and duration, as well as the frequency of occurrence on a multiannual, annual and daily basis. Halny winds occur most frequently in the cold period of the year (Oct–Feb), with the frequency peaking in November, and sporadically in the summer. The occurrence of foehn winds is strongly dependent on the synoptic situation. Therefore, the main aim of the study was to identify the circulation conditions conducive to their occurrence on the Polish side of the Tatra Mountains. Circulation conditions responsible for foehn formation were analysed using gridded sea level pressure (SLP) data from the NCEP-DOE (National Centers for Environmental Prediction-Department of Energy) reanalyses. The occurrence of foehn wind in the Tatra Mountains is associated with a low pressure system over north-western Europe, and above normal pressure over south-eastern Europe. The location and intensity of the centres of atmospheric influence on foehn days can vary, as indicated by the three types of pressure systems favouring the occurrence of the phenomenon, distinguished by the hierarchical grouping method. In type 1, the cyclonic centre spreads over northern Europe, in type 2 over western Europe and in type 3 over north-western Europe. In types 1 and 3, the air masses come from the south-west, and in type 2 more from the south. Type 3 is characterised by the greatest horizontal pressure gradients among the three circulation types and with the greatest SLP anomalies.

Visitors’ perception of crowding. A case study from the Tatra Mountains

Protected areas (PAs) serve as significant tourist destinations, drawing a substantial number of visitors annually. Over the past century, managers and scientists overseeing PAs have sought to identify indicators that specify the maximum number of tourists that could visit a particular area without making a large impact on the environment. As a result, the carrying capacity theory was created, which now evolved into the concept called Limits of Acceptable Changes (LAC). This concept is based on the expected conditions that should be met in a protected area in both ecological and social aspects. This study aims to assess the tolerable level of congestion in a cable car destination situated in the Tatra Mountains and, in addition, to obtain information on the factors that affected the differences in visitors’ perception of crowding. Data used in the analysis were collected as part of two research projects: focused on the Kasprowy Wierch area (Poland) and the Skalnaté Pleso area (Slovakia). To gain information on the perception of crowding by visitors, on-site surveys were conducted during the summer season of 2014 and 2015 at both sites. The research results show that the acceptance of crowding decreases with the increasing number of visitors in research areas and it is affected by the type of research area. The analysis also reveals that the acceptance of crowding is also dependent on socio-demographic and social factors such as the level of educational attainment of the respondents, the type of trip or the size of the group.

Past and future changes in the start, end, and duration of the growing season in Poland

The aim of the study was to determine the direction and rate of the projected changes of the start, end, and duration of the growing season in Poland in two-time horizons: 2021–2050 and 2071–2100. The main part of the paper was preceded by an analysis of changes in the start and end dates and the duration of the growing season in Poland in the period 1966–2020. The growing season in Poland is projected to be the shortest in mountain areas and in the north-eastern regions of Poland, where the date of growing season start is the latest and the date of the growing season end is the earliest. Whereas the longest growing season due to the projected earliest start and latest end dates is expected in the southwestern Poland. In the case of the coast, its late end will be of the greatest importance for its duration as a result of the warming effect of the sea in the autumn–winter period. The most intensive changes are forecasted in the long-term perspective in the case of the scenario regarding a high level of greenhouse gas emissions. The forecasts show that outside mountain areas, the growing season duration will vary from less than 255 days in the northeastern regions to more than 290 days in southwest and western Poland. In the duration of the mountains, the growing season will vary from 180 days on Kasprowy Wierch to 188 days on Śnieżka. This suggests significant changes in agroclimatic conditions in Poland.

Insights From the Last Year’s Atmospheric CO2 Measurements in the Urban Atmosphere and the Natural Ecosystem in Southern Poland

Abstract This article aims to compare the molar fraction of atmospheric CO2 measured in southern Poland, specifically in Gliwice (an urban area), Kraków (an urban area), and Kasprowy Wierch (a mountain environment) from August 2022 to March 2023. The study examines diurnal, monthly and seasonal variations in the molar fraction of CO2. Monthly and diurnal average CO2 air mole fraction data are reported for Gliwice, Kraków, and Kasprowy Wierch during the specified period. The results reveal greater fluctuations in CO2 amplitude in urban areas compared to the mountain environment. Significant differences in diurnal, nocturnal, monthly and seasonal variabilities of atmospheric CO2 are observed in the urban sites. The findings suggest that the biosphere may act as a dominant source of local CO2 in summer and fall, while other local or regional anthropogenic sources could impact CO2 levels during winter and early spring, prior to the vegetation period. Additionally, this paper discusses challenges encountered during the use of a low-cost system (CARBOCAP GMP-343) for measuring CO2 levels in the urban area of Gliwice in 2022.

Characteristics of wind speeds and outdoor thermal sensation considering the effect of wind speeds: An analysis based on hourly data from 1995 to 2021 in Poland

AbstractIn this study, characteristics of 10 m height wind speeds (Wsp10) and outdoor human thermal sensation taking wind speeds into account were studied over the period 1995–2021 considering 43 stations in Poland. For estimating hourly Wsp10 from wind speeds measured at different heights, first, the power law exponent was calculated using hourly 10 and 100 m wind speeds obtained from the ERA5 reanalysis project. The power law exponent was much smaller over the Baltic Sea compared to that over Poland. The power law exponent was often larger than 1/7 in Poland, and it varied spatiotemporally. During the period 1995–2021, at 19 of the 43 stations statistically significant monotonic linear trends were observed in Wsp10. It is speculated that land use changes may be one of the causes of these trends in Wsp10, although the land use–Wsp10 relationship was not straightforward. In all seasons, at all stations, except at Kasprowy Wierch (the most elevated station) daytime Wsp10 was higher than the night‐time wind speed. In winter and autumn, the highest Wsp10 occurred around 1300 UTC. In spring and summer, the highest Wsp10 occurred after 1300 UTC. This was probably because in spring and summer the peak temperature occurs later. In all seasons, low/high Wsp10 values were more/less frequent. According to the Beaufort scale and the Parczewski scale, it was understood that both low and high extreme wind conditions have reduced over the period 1995–2021. The Effective Temperature scale indicated increasing/decreasing monotonic linear trends in relatively warm/cold thermal sensation categories. The Wind Chill Temperature exposure risk scale indicated decreasing monotonic linear trends in wind chill. The rising temperature and declining frequency of strong winds are seen as the main causes of these trends.

Long-term trends and factors influencing rainwater chemistry in the Tatra Mountains, Poland

The results of rainwater chemistry monitoring in the Tatra Mountains, Poland, during the periods1993–1994 and 2002–2019 were used to determine long-term trends and the factors influencing rainwater chemistry in the last two decades. In the early 1990’s, the study area was characterized by prominent acid rains with a pH of 4.4 that affected surface water, meadows, and forest ecosystems. A rising pH temporal trend has been observed during the following years, indicating improving air quality. This trend has also been observed in measured ionic concentrations and reduced wet deposition loads of sulfur- and nitrogen-containing acid-forming compounds. The neutralization capacity of rainwater in Kasprowy Wierch increased over the last twenty years and has mostly been dominated by NH4+. The ammonium availability index has been steadily increasing between years 2002 and 2019 but remains less than 1. This statistically significant relationship also indicates that a portion of neutralization occurs in the lower part of the atmosphere due to ammonium-related neutralization processes. The acidic potential (AP) and the ratio AP/NP (acidic potential/neutralization potential) have been declining during the same time. The stated trends in rainwater chemistry reflect the transformation to more environmentally sustainable economies in the region. Similar changes have been observed in neighboring countries in the region, including Slovakia, the Czech Republic, and Lithuania.

INWERSJA TEMPERATURY POWIETRZA W TATRACH W LATACH 1995–2020

This paper concerns the characteristics of the multi-annual, seasonal and daily variability of thermal inversion in the Tatra Mountains in 1995–2020. The analysis was performed on the basis of hourly measurements taken at the Institute of Meteorology and Water Management National Research Institute (IMGW-PIB) station in Kasprowy Wierch and Zakopane. The types of atmosphere circulation were determined found when the inversion was most frequent. The concentration of PM10 during the inversion and its intensity were analyzed and indicated that the number of inversion cases was growing. The analysis confirmed that inversions were most frequent in the cold season in the evening hours during anticyclonic circulation. Strong inversions occurred in the cold season. Winter inversions were associated with an increase in PM10 concentration.

Heavy Metal Content in the Plants (Pleurozium schreberi and Picea abies) of Environmentally Important Protected Areas of the Tatra National Park (the Central Western Carpathians, Poland)

This work concerns the content of selected heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn), and determines the effect of absolute altitude on the content of metals in the plants of the Tatra National Park (TNP). The metals were determined in two species of plants, i.e., in the moss (Pleurozium schreberi (Willd.) Mitten) and in the Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst). Plant samples were collected in two test areas every 100 m of the altitude of the area, starting from 1000 m above sea level in the Lake Morskie Oko test area and from 1100 m above sea level in the Kasprowy Wierch test area, and ending at 1400 m above sea level for Lake Morskie Oko, and 1750 m above sea level (the moss) and 1550 m above sea level (the spruce) for Kasprowy Wierch. The two test areas are different from each other in terms of natural and physico-geographical conditions (geological structure, landform, climatic conditions). The conducted research showed that both plant species accumulated greater amounts of heavy metals in the Lake Morskie Oko test area than in the Kasprowy Wierch test area. The moss accumulated higher values of metals compared to the spruce. In both the moss and the spruce, the highest values, exceeding the natural content, were found for Cr, Pb, Cd, and Ni. For these metals, natural values were significantly exceeded: 20 times for Cr; 10 times for Pb; 4 times for Cd; and 3 times for Ni. For both examined areas, an increase in the quantity of accumulated metals in plants was also observed with the increase in altitude. The work focuses on the spreading around of heavy metals and their deposition on plants in protected high mountain (alpine) areas, in connection with altitude. Based on the obtained research results, Spearman’s and Kendall’s rank correlations were performed, and showed statistically significant relationships between the values for the content of metals and altitude. There are no heavy metal emission sources in the study area, so it is assumed that the metal content in the plants of the TNP is affected by long-range emissions.

Heavy Metals Content in the Soils of the Tatra National Park Near Lake Morskie Oko and Kasprowy Wierch—A Case Study (Tatra Mts, Central Europe)

This paper presents the content of selected heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) in the soils of the Tatra National Park (TNP). In order to determine the anthropogenic impact on the environment, the following coefficients were calculated: enrichment factors (EF), geoaccumulation index (Igeo), contamination factor (Cf), degree of contamination (Cd), and modified degree of contamination (mCd). It turned out that in the Kasprowy Wierch and Lake Morskie Oko test areas, the content of metals in the soil decreases with the increasing altitude above sea level. In both regions, the highest concentrations of cadmium and lead were found, for which the coefficients indicated significant environmental pollution. These metals, since they persist in the atmosphere for a long time and have a small particle diameter, can be moved over long distances. Long-range emission contributes to environmental contamination on a global scale. Under the influence of such emissions, even protected areas such as the Tatra National Park, considered to be of natural value, are exposed to the effects of human activities (industry in general, automotive industry in particular).

The Rainfall Erosion of Polish Soils (2006-2016)

The study aims to live the rainfall erosion effect on Polish soils from (2006-2016). the very best Rainfall erosion in Polish cities were in Kasprowy Wierch and Śnieżka (1722.4, 579.59 MJ mm ha-1 year-1) respectively, thanks to high sand content and low clay content increased the likelihood of abrasion, while the less were in Łeba, Sandomierz, Racibórz and Jelenia Góra (19.59, 21.307, 25.14,25.28 MJ mm ha-1 year-1) respectively. The rainfall effect more on polish soil thanks to continuing mainly sand and silt texture with small percentages of clay.

Analysis of changes in hydrological cycle of a pristine mountain catchment. 1. Water balance components and snow cover

Abstract We analyse water balance, hydrological response, runoff and snow cover characteristics in the Jalovecký Creek catchment (area 22 km2, mean elevation 1500 m a.s.l.), Slovakia, in hydrological years 1989–2018 to search for changes in hydrological cycle of a mountain catchment representing hydrology of the highest part of the Western Carpathians. Daily air temperature data from two meteorological stations located in the studied mountain range (the Tatra Mountains) at higher elevations show that the study period is 0.1°C to 2.4°C warmer than the climatic standard period 1951–1980. Precipitation and snow depth data from the same stations do not allow to conclude if the study period is wetter/drier or has a decreasing snow cover. Clear trends or abrupt changes in the analysed multivariate hydrometric data time series are not obvious and the oscillations found in catchment runoff are not coherent to those found in catchment precipitation and air temperature. Several time series (flashiness index, number of flow reversals, annual and seasonal discharge maxima, runoff coefficients) indicate that hydrological cycle is more dynamic in the last years of the study period and more precipitation runs off since 2014. The snow cover characteristics and climatic conditions during the snow accumulation and melting period do not indicate pronounced changes (except the number of days with snowfall at the Kasprowy Wierch station since 2011). However, some data series (e.g. flow characteristics in March and June, annual versus summer runoff coefficients since 2014) suggest the changes in the cold period of the year.

Wpływ doświadczenia na motywy uprawiania narciarstwa na przykładzie tatrzańskich ośrodków narciarskich: Kasprowy Wierch (Polska) i Tatrzańska Łomnica (Słowacja)

Impact of experience on the motives of skiers on the example of Tatra ski resorts: Kasprowy Wierch (Poland) and Tatrzańska Łomnica (Slovakia) Both the motivation and the experience of tourists depend on psychological processes, being very individual for each person. They are closely related with each other and, also, they are affected by each other in many aspects. The aim of this article is to characterize the relationship between the motivation and the past mountain and ski experience of respondents from two Tatra ski resorts: Kasprowy Wierch (Poland) and Tatrzańska Łomnica (Slovakia). In order to gain information about the motivation and experience of tourists a survey using the PAPI technique was conducted during the winter seasons 2014/2015 and 2015/2016. A total of 404 questionnaires was collected (Kasprowy Wierch – 197; Tatrzańska Łomnica – 207). The results confirm that tourists’ motivation as well as their past mountain and ski experience are dependent on each other. Past experience and tourist motivation are both affected by other factors, including the type of activity or the frequency of visits. The research also shows that especially the past mountain experience affects many other variables including tourist motivation.

Skiers’ expectations as a challenge for managers of protected areas – a case study from the Tatra National Parks in Poland and Slovakia

Mountain areas are particularly attractive for the development of winter activities such as skiing, owing to both morphological and climatic conditions. However, mountain areas are at the same time vulnerable. For this reason, they are often under protection. This study focuses on two important and heavily used ski resorts in the Tatra National Parks, Kasprowy Wierch (Poland) and Skalnaté Pleso (Slovakia), looking at skiers’ opinions and complaints regarding the resorts. In addition, a comparison between the resorts was conducted. In order to verify the relationship between socio-demographic variables and the skiers’ opinions, two types of statistical tests were used: Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient and Chi-square. The results show that the Kasprowy Wierch ski resort received a larger number of negative comments than Skalnate Pleso. However, Skalnate Pleso drew more negative opinions regarding the impact of the cable car and ski area on the landscape. The consequences of fulfilling visitors’ expectations can be used practically by the managers of the protected areas.

Long‐Term Variability of Aerosol Optical Depth in the Tatra Mountain Region of Central Europe

AbstractThis paper presents the results of long‐term observations (1964–2010) of direct solar flux at two stations in the Tatra Mountains in Poland (Central Europe). The measurements obtained from a Linke‐Feussner actinometers are used to estimate broadband (0.29–2.9 μm) and wideband (0.53–0.63 μm) aerosol optical depth (BAOD and WAOD, respectively). Both BAOD and WAOD at Mount Kasprowy Wierch (1,991 m a.s.l.) and in Zakopane (851 m a.s.l.) show similar annual cycles with peaks during spring and summer. Coincidence of actinometer observation at the top of the Tatra Mountains and in Zakopane valley allows determination of AOD in the column between 851 and 1,991 m a.s.l. Annual variabilities of both BAOD and WAOD for this layer are similar to PM10 concentration measurements in Zakopane. Conversely, BAOD and WAOD obtained at both stations show opposing annual variability, which is consistent with the Aerosol Robotic Network and model results in Central Europe. Long‐term data show significant reduction of both BAOD and WAOD in Zakopane (−0.018 ± 0.003 and −0.023 ± 0.003, respectively, per decade) and lower reductions at Mt. Kasprowy Wierch (−0.005 ± 0.002 and −0.009 ± 0.002, respectively, per decade). Trends for BAOD and WAOD defined between 851 and 1,991 m a.s.l. are the same (−0.013 ± 0.004 per decade), which corresponds to the reduction of WAOD and BAOD by about 60% between 1964 and 2010. Conversely, emission data for the Zakopane region obtained from Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research inventories shows reduction of SO2 by a factor of 3 and of NOx and PM10 by about 40% between 1988 and 2010.

Nature-based Tourism or Mass Tourism in Nature? Segmentation of Mountain Protected Area Visitors Using Self-Organizing Maps (SOM)

Mountain protected areas play a fundamental role in the conservation of natural environment and at the same time provide the population with social benefits such as offering space for leisure and recreation. Understanding motivations and behavior of protected area visitors is crucial to effectively manage vulnerable areas. Our objective was to identify the profiles of visitors to a heavily used tourist destination—Kasprowy Wierch within the Tatra National Park (Poland), using the self-organizing maps (SOM) analytical method. In order to explore the socio-demographic and behavioral characteristics of the visitors a total sample of 2488 respondents were interviewed on site. Self-organizing map analysis is based on cerebral processes for managing and storing information in order to classify subjects and/or find relationships among variables. As a result, four heterogeneous tourist profiles were identified. Interestingly, two of these groups (Cluster 1 and Cluster 3), which were found to be the most challenging groups for management purposes, visited the national park for reasons other than its natural attractions. Especially, one sub-segment of Cluster 3 was mainly motivated by the possibility to use a cable car, admiring views and stayed within close proximity of the upper cable car station. Less than a half of visitors to Kasprowy Wierch (42%) were seeking a nature experience during their trip (Cluster 2 and Cluster 4). The results bring a new point of view in the discussion on visitor management within Kasprowy Wierch region, in particular by overlapping presented visitor segmentation with trip types and/or purchased cable car tickets. Within international context, we highlight the SOM technique as a valuable tool in profiling of tourists and underline the problem of the existence of mass tourism destinations within protected areas.

Sezonowa i wieloletnia zmienność niektórych elementów klimatu w Tatrach i Karkonoszach w latach 1951-2015 = Seasonal and multiannual variability of selected elements of climate in the Tatra and Karkonosze Mts over the 1951-2015 period

W ostatnich dekadach XX w. i na początku XXI w. obserwuje się w skali globalnej znaczący wzrost temperatury powietrza. W odniesieniu do pozostałych elementów klimatu informacje są rozbieżne. Na przykład, relacjonowany jest wzrost opadów lub ich zmniejszanie. Brak jest praktycznie informacji, czy i w jakim stopniu zmieniają się wilgotność powietrza i prędkość wiatru. Obszary górskie są miejscami szczególnie wrażliwymi na zmiany klimatu. Dlatego też w opracowaniu tym podjęto próbę porównania sezonowych i wieloletnich zmian niektórych elementów klimatu i wskaźników klimatycznych w polskich wysokich górach (Tatry i Karkonosze) w latach 1951–2015. Stwierdzono szereg podobieństw i różnic klimatycznych pomiędzy badanymi pasmami, zwłaszcza w odniesieniu do gradientów wysokościowych temperatury powietrza (gradient średniej rocznej temperatury powietrza wynosi -0,53°C w Tatrach i -0,55°C na 100 m wzniesienia w Karkonoszach)1 i pokrywy śnieżnej (10 cm/100 m w Tatrach i 12 cm/100 m w Karkonoszach). Opady atmosferyczne cechują się gradientem wysokościowym 38 mm/100 m w Karkonoszach i 53 mm/100 m w Tatrach. Stwierdzono także podobieństwa i różnice tempa zmian różnych elementów klimatu w analizowanym wieloleciu. W przypadku średniej rocznej temperatury istotny trend zmian wynosi w obydwu pasmach około 0,3°C na 10 lat. W większości przypadków zmiany charakterystyk opadowych oraz dotyczących pokrywy śnieżnej są nieistotne statystycznie.

Total solar radiation in Zakopane and at Mount Kasprowy Wierch (Western Carpathians, Poland) in 1986-2015

Total solar radiation in Zakopane and at Mount Kasprowy Wierch (Western Carpathians, Poland) in 1986-2015

Visitor profiling for cable car mountain destinations as a basis for protected area management: a case study of the summer season in the Tatra Mountains at Kasprowy Wierch (Poland) and Skalnaté Pleso (Slovakia)

Protected areas play a crucial role in the conservation of vulnerable mountain ecosystems, but at the same time they may serve as tourist destinations and attract large numbers of visitors. Areas located in close proximity to cable cars belong to some of the most challenging sites for mountain protected area management. This study focuses on two cable car areas: Kasprowy Wierch (Tatra National Park, Poland) and Skalnaté Pleso (Tatra National Park, Slovakia). Both sites belong to the most heavilyused leisure destinations in the Tatra Mountains. The study focused on the summer, snow-free tourist peak-season, for which there is an ongoing discussion concerning the development of cable car services. In 2014 and 2015, on-site interviews were conducted in the two study areas (n = 3 304). In order to better understand visitors’ needs and goals, visitor profiling using K-means clustering was performed. Four distinct segments based on visitor motivations were identified: nature oriented (32 %), family / friends & well-being oriented (23 %), sports oriented (14 %), and a mixed segment with multiple motivations (31 %). The results show that two tourist segments were not particularly interested in nature experience, although they visited protected areas. A significant relationship between motivational segments and trip characteristics was identified. The visitor segments defined can be used practically in the management of cable car destinations located within protected areas.

Regional Representativeness of CH4 and N2O Mixing Ratio Measurements at High-Altitude Mountain Station Kasprowy Wierch, Southern Poland

Records of trace gas composition of the atmosphere originating from mountain stations are difficult to interpret in terms of continental gas balances due to complex topography and local wind patterns. Kasprowy Wierch station, located in the High Tatra Mountains, Poland, provides datasets to European GHG databases and can be used for regional and continental balances of trace gases in Earth's atmosphere. Although it suffers from strong influence of local valley winds, the concentration record obtained at Kasprowy Wierch contains also a discernible fraction of methane (up to 100 ppb) emitted mainly by large regional source of this gas (Silesian Coal Basin) located ca. 150 km north-west of Kasprowy Wierch. Comparison of GOSAT satellite CH_4 record in the pixel including High Tatras at the level of 850 hPa with the data obtained at Kasprowy Wierch mountain station revealed surprisingly good correlation, even for relatively short time intervals.

Monitoring of Greenhouse Gases in the Atmosphere – A Polish Perspective

Abstract An overview of systematic observations of the trace-gas composition of the atmosphere over southern Poland is presented, against the background of data available for other greenhouse gas (GHG) monitoring stations in Europe. The results of GHG monitoring for three major greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O) are discussed. Measurements were performed at two locations of contrasting characteristics, i.e. (i) the high-altitude mountain station of Kasprowy Wierch in the High Tatras, representing atmospheric conditions relatively free of local influences, and (ii) an urban station located in the Krakow agglomeration. The GHG data available for the Kasprowy Wierch station were compared with relevant data available for two marine reference stations (Mace Head, Ireland and Terceira Island, Azores), and two continental stations (Hohenpeissenberg, Germany and Pallas-Sammaltunturi, Finland). The growth rates for the CO2 mole fraction recorded at these five stations reveal only small temporal changes that almost coincide, leading to a quasi-linear increase of the CO2 mixing ratio over the European continent over the past 20 years. While N2O observations also reveal a steady increase over this time period, the mole fraction accounted for by CH4 is increasing again, after a period of stagnation in the years 2001–2007. The impact of continental sources of CH4 and N2O is seen clearly in the Kasprowy Wierch records. The mean departure between the CH4 mixing ratios recorded at Kasprowy Wierch and at the marine reference stations in the period 1994–2014 is of 27.3 ppb, and stems from continental emissions of this gas originating mainly from anthropogenic activities (leaking natural-gas distribution networks, landfills and livestock). For N2O, a departure of 1 ppb was observed for the period 2009–2014. Comparison of quasi-continuous measurements of CO2, CH4 and N2O mixing ratios made in the urban atmosphere of Krakow and at the regional reference site Kasprowy Wierch (located approximately 100 km away), allows for a deeper insight into the mechanisms controlling daily variations in atmospheric mixing ratios of these gases at the two sites. The development of a nocturnal inversion layer in the atmosphere above the city leads to local enhancements of CO2, CH4 and N2O mole fractions in the Krakow atmosphere during the night hours, with these exceeding the baseline level significantly.