Kashmiri Women Research Articles

‘Where else can they go?’: Violence, resistance and the socio‐cultural trajectories of Kashmiri women in Freny Manecksha's Behold I Shine: Narratives of Kashmir's Women and Children

AbstractIn the armed conflict between Kashmiri militancy and the Indian state forces, Kashmiri women have been relentless victims of abduction, rape, molestation, and cruel objectification by the militaristic patriarchs of both sides. In the context of the state's unaccountability, the rebuttal of justice is horrific in Kashmir. Consequently, due to predominant masculine, state‐centric, absolutist, and neo‐realist perceptions, the majority of atrocities against Kashmiri women have gone unregistered and unreported, failing to reach the pan‐Indian masses through the dominant media and literary narratives. This article explicates Freny Manecksha's book Behold I Shine: Narratives of Kashmir's Women and Children (2017) as a unique retelling of Kashmiri women's physical violence, fears, trauma, and, most importantly, their fortitude and recuperation. Drawing on feminist views on rape and repression, it exposes how rape in Kashmir incessantly functions as a weapon of suppression, relegating women to the most precarious position. Simultaneously, the discussion demonstrates how rape and oppression render Kashmiri women docile and vulnerable to cultural and collective trauma by employing the Foucauldian notion of docility. The article further addresses how Kashmiri women repudiate the traditional divides of private and public, overturn the social expectations of womanhood, contest the patriarchal excesses of militaristic Kashmir vis‐à‐vis their resilience, and protest against state‐sponsored violence. Thus, the article posits Manecksha's writing as a counter‐historiographic narrative for the marginalized voices of Kashmiri women, whose ways of redressing their grievances constitute subversive modes of resistance.

Maternal and Perinatal outcomes in nulliparous Kashmiri women who present in latent phase versus active phase of labour

Maternal and Perinatal outcomes in nulliparous Kashmiri women who present in latent phase versus active phase of labour

Engendering Women in Work Spaces: Household and Economy in Nineteenth Century Kashmir

The region of Kashmir has long been in the news for armed conflicts and for the constant political disturbances in the area. This meta narrative of dispute and contestation overshadows the rich cultural heritage that Kashmir and its people own. For instance, textiles (in particular Kashmiri shawls), paper mache, stone artists, and sericulture industry are few to name and what is even lesser known is the fact that Kashmiri Women are the major contributors in all these industries. It is evident from the literature produced in the nineteenth century that apart from doing household chores most Kashmiri women were either involved in working on the fields or helped males of the family in the production of handicrafts. Hand spinning was the basic occupation of Kashmiri women with around 80% of women being involved in spinning. However, very few sources written in the period give women their due credit. Their work is either mostly mentioned being clubbed with that of the men in their house or completely invisibilized. The nineteenth century was a period when the British had started getting a stronghold over the economy of Kashmir by controlling the then present political dispensation of the Dogras. This led to an export of Kashmiri shawls to Europe and other countries in large numbers. However, the major force behind this prosperous international trade, the Kashmiri women artisans neither got an appropriate share in the revenue generated nor the recognition due to them. This paper, therefore, attempts to look at the contribution of women artisans of Kashmir in the handicraft industries in the nineteenth century. It will try and mainstream the contribution of these women both to the household as well as to the economy of Kashmir in the nineteenth century.

Social networking: An analysis of health-related social support messages posted in a Facebook group for Kashmiri women

The support groups within social networking sites such as Facebook have become a popular platform for various kinds of conversation and social support including health, especially among women. The aim of this study was to explore and analyze the types of health-related social support messages posted in a month by Kashmiri women in a Facebook group and the most common health topics for which social support was sought. A total of 302 health-related posts were selected for analysis. The results revealed that of various health-related social support posts in the group, informational support messages were posted more frequently and most requested information was related to pregnancy.

The Narrative of Oppression and Struggle Among the Women of Kashmir: A Subaltern Study of Behold, I Shine by Freny Manecksha

Kashmiri literature highlights the major themes of oppression and the continuous struggle by Kashmiris in their cause for independence. Millions of Kashmiris have suffered from human rights violations by Indian troops. Among them, the most disturbed are women and children. This paper focuses on the narratives of Kashmiri women and how they spend their lives in Indian-occupied Kashmir while highlighting the theoretical underpinning of female subalterns. In which women are suppressed, oppressed, and kept voiceless among their people. In Kashmir, women have been raped, assaulted, and marginalized by Indian troops and to lower their voices they are given the amount of ex gratia which acts as a bandage to heal the wounds. The paper will explore how Indian troops have colonized the land how they have been treating women in Kashmir, and what role women play in their call for azadi.

Kashmiri women in conflict: a feminist perspective

Kashmiri women are diverse individuals with a wide range of origins, histories, experiences, and aspirations. Women in Kashmir are deeply entwined with the region’s complicated socio-political landscape, especially in terms of the protracted conflict in Kashmir. The living patterns of women in Kashmir are severely influenced by insurgency, militancy, and the consequent militarization of the region, as well as a wide range of socio-economic, historical, religious, and geopolitical circumstances. Kashmiri women’s day-to-day existence, safety, security, and mobility are strongly impacted by enhanced security protocols and the existence of armed personnel and militants in the region. Even though a great number of research works have been performed on Kashmir’s politics, history, philosophy, and religion, the struggles and challenges faced by women amid the conflict need to be further explored. This research aimed to comprehend and unveil the situation of Kashmiri women in the conflict zone through a comprehensive review of the existing literature on gendered violations in Kashmir, thereby emphasizing the need for the recognition of the suffering of Kashmiri women from a feminist perspective. Furthermore, the contributions of Kashmiri women activists, politicians, and feminists were highlighted, thus accentuating their role towards gender equality and sustainable peace in the region.

Silenced voices and strained livelihoods: challenges faced by Kashmiri women entrepreneurs after article 370 abrogation

ObjectiveThis research endeavours to elucidate the ramifications of the communication blockade on women entrepreneurs operating within the Kashmir Valley in the wake of the protracted imposition of communication blockade in the region of Jammu and Kashmir following the unanticipated abrogation of Article 370 of the Constitution of India.ParticipantsThe study assembled a cohort of 20 women entrepreneurs hailing from Srinagar and Ganderbal districts in Kashmir, utilising a combination of purposive and snowball sampling methodologies to ensure a comprehensive representation of participants. Data acquisition was carried out through a series of direct, semi-structured, and in-depth personal interviews.MethodEmploying an interpretive phenomenological approach, this qualitative inquiry transcribed the rich narratives gleaned from these interviews, elucidating a confluence of recurrent themes.ResultsThe protracted absence of communication channels, extending indefinitely, precipitated a multifaceted crisis encompassing economic, social, and psychological dimensions, thereby significantly impacting the well-being of residents of the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir.ConclusionThe recurring themes encompass anger and frustration, loss of livelihood, helplessness and dehumanisation stemming from total communication blackouts.

Livelihood Challenges in Handicraft Industry: A Qualitative Study on Poverty and Exploitation of Women Artisans in Srinagar

This study was framed to gain an in-depth understanding and first-hand experiences of women artisans of Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir (J&K). Purposive and snowball sampling were employed in conducting the study. In this study, 20 Kashmiri women artisans were interviewed. Face-to-face interviews based on open-ended and descriptive questions were probed. Several interpretative and specific questions were also asked during the interview process to ensure thoroughness. The collected data were read multiple times to achieve familiarization and then compared with other data sets and interpreted thematically. The following themes emerged from the data set by application of descriptive phenomenology (a) financial hardships, (b) exploitation of women artisans in handicrafts sector under different agents, (c) exploitation in the form of low wages, (d) impact of conflict and (e) livelihood challenges and pathways to sustain women artisans livelihood. The findings also reveal that artisans had suffered dramatically due to two lockdowns: the lockdown imposed because of the removal of Article 370 of India’s constitution, which guaranteed special status to citizens of J&K, and the lockdown imposed as a result of Covid-19.

Alternative discourse for constituting subjecthood of women: A case for an autonomous feminist discourse in Kashmir in India

The article is centrally concerned with mapping out the autonomy of the feminist subject in India using the case study of Kashmir after the abrogation of Article 35A. It argues that the autonomy of the feminist subject in India has been subsumed within various other discourses, due to which the feminist subject of the discourse is still denied the necessary space. The article uses the case study of Jammu and Kashmir and argues that women face triple jeopardy being subjected to multiple counter-discourses to their autonomy. Feminism and autonomy in Kashmir cannot be defined in isolation; gender power relations intersect with the ethnic conflict of partitions as well as the militarization of Kashmir. It accounts for women's positions throughout history, including the ancient monarchical system, which resulted in a syncretic Kasmiriyat tradition, the Dogra regime with its alliances and misalignments with British rule, and the violence of the Indian subcontinent's partition. Based on multiple variables, the article employs a two-pronged approach. The first approach is to carry out the discursive analysis of the autonomy of the feminist subject in India and Jammu and Kashmir. The second approach considers the narrative of Kashmiri women through detailed interviews to determine how they define their autonomy. Using these two approaches, an attempt is made to investigate the implications of the abrogation of Article 35A in terms of conceptualizing a case of autonomous space for Kashmiri women as democratic citizens of India.

DISPOSITIONAL AUTONOMY AND SUBJECTIVE WELLBEING AMONG WOMEN IN A COLLECTIVISTIC CULTURE

Autonomy has been conceived as a masculine trait in literature. However, feminist literature and SDT theorists consider autonomy as a requisite need for all irrespective of gender, class and culture. The Self-Determination Theory perspective posits autonomy as a basic psychological need and an essential nutriment for well-being. The aim of the present paper was to study the effects of dispositional autonomy on subjective wellbeing among women in Kashmir. The aim was to see the existence of this attribute among women being in collectivistic culture. The relationship of the dimensions of dispositional autonomy i.e., authorship/self-congruence, susceptibility to control and interest-taking with subjective wellbeing was examined and their effects on subjective wellbeing was studied. The 15-item, 5-point Likert Scale namely Index of Autonomous Functioning (IAF) (Weinstein et al., 2012b) was used to assess dispositional autonomy. The 14-item, 5-point Likert Scale namely, Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS) (S Stewart-Brown & Janmohamed, 2008) was used to assess subjective wellbeing. The study was conducted on a sample of 183 Kashmiri women. The correlation and regression analysis was done to study the relationship and effects of dispositional autonomy on subjective wellbeing among women in collectivistic culture. The results showed a significant positive effect of dispositional autonomy on subjective wellbeing of women. The study has contributed in the existing body of knowledge by highlighting the importance of autonomy as a basic psychological need in the wellbeing of women.

Insulin Receptor Substrate 1 Gly972Arg (rs1801278) Polymorphism Is Associated with Obesity and Insulin Resistance in Kashmiri Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome.

Background: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is commonly associated with metabolic abnormalities such as hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance and obesity. The genetic variants of genes regulating insulin action, expression and regulation are suggested as possible factors involved in development and severity of clinical manifestations in PCOS. Aim: We investigated whether IRS-1Gly972Arg (rs1801278) polymorphism is associated with increased risk of PCOS in Kashmiri women. The correlation of various clinical, metabolic and hormonal markers with rs1801278 single nucleotide polymorphism was analyzed. The genotypic–phenotypic association of clinical manifestations of PCOS with the tested genetic variant was also assessed. Results: There were no significant differences in allele frequency (OR = 0.87, CI = 0.59–1.29, χ2 = 0.456, p = 0.499) or genotypic distribution (χ2 = 3.73, p = 0.15) between PCOS women and controls. No significant association was also found in the dominant (OR = 1.63, χ2 = 0.377, p = 0.53), recessive (OR = 0.79, χ2 = 1.01, p = 0.31) or heterozygote vs. homozygote (OR = 1.34, χ2 = 1.53, p = 0.22) genotype model analysis. The genotype–phenotype correlation analysis showed that the Arg allele was significantly associated with increased central adiposity markers hip circumference (p = 0.012), and body adiposity index BAI (p = 0.002) in the recessive model in PCOS women. The two-hour glucose (p = 0.04) and insulin resistance marker HOMA (p = 0.44) were significantly higher in Arg allele carriers. The androgen excess markers dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate DHEAS (p = 0.02), Ferriman–Gallwey score (p = 0.012), prevalence of acne, alopecia and hirsutism (all p < 0.01) were significantly elevated in the wild-type GG genotype. Conclusions:IRS-1Gly972Arg genetic variant does not increase the risk of PCOS in Kashmiri women. However, this polymorphism is associated with clinical manifestations of insulin resistance, obesity and hyperandrogenism, suggesting its possible role in variable phenotypic manifestations of PCOS.

Women in low intensity political conflict (through the lives of Kashmiri women)

The analysis of gender in conflict and fragile situations is an emerging area of research. Little to no attention has been paid to it up until very recently. There is scant scholarly work available that directly addresses this issue, and there is no research on the relationship between gender and low intensity conflict in Kashmir. It is in this light that the current research note has been written. It traces the broad impact that conflict has had on the lives of women living in the Kashmir region, the conflict centric part of Jammu and Kashmir. Through this research note it is established that the women in Kashmir have been exposed to the shock of unpredicted fragility, and the study is further endorsed by some instantial ethnographic case studies. These shocks have impacted them economically, psychologically and socially. Generations of women have been suffering from the negative impact of the conflict. Alhough disastrous for the most part, women have gradually developed some resilience. With time more and more Kashmiri women have been striving towards gaining economic independence by learning skills, by the acquisition of education and by being gainfully employed.

FEATURE: WOMEN'S RESISTANCE IN KASHMIR Memory as Resistance: Oral Histories from Kashmir

Abstract This paper contextualizes women-led protest in the Kashmir valley, using oral history to record its evolution from the 1940s until today. Because of the continuous political upheaval in Jammu and Kashmir, recorded history on women's activism from the twentieth century is very scant. These oral testimonies from primary actors therefore extend the range of historical understanding. Kashmiri women, rural and urban, who formed part of the anti-monarchical protest movement in the 1940s remained active participants in ground level politics and continued highlighting social issues in their communities have been interviewed. These are some of their stories in their own words.

Women, Gender Politics, and Resistance in Kashmir

This article focuses on Kashmiri women and the gender politics underpinning the August 5, 2019 revocation of Article 370 in Kashmir. Reclaiming Kashmiri women’s property rights was among the justifications cited by the state for revoking Kashmir’s autonomy. Paradoxically, however, most analyses centered on its political implications. Kashmiri women’s opinions regarding the revocation, the state’s use of the women’s rights argument to justify the same, or Kashmiri women’s rights and experiences in the wake of the revocation were seldom the subjects of discussion or analysis. Beginning with a brief overview of Kashmiri women’s role in the Kashmiri struggle, I juxtapose the State’s claim as defender of Kashmiri women’s property rights against the legal and factual position of women’s property rights in Kashmir prior to the revocation, demonstrating the contradiction between the two. I subsequently foreground the gendered, misogynist sub-text of nationalist rhetoric unleashed in the wake of the revocation. The convergence between hyper-nationalist, masculinist claims to Kashmir’s territory on the one hand, and to Kashmiri women’s bodies on the other, is highlighted. This particular dimension, I maintain, symbolises the gendered edge of the Indian State’s policy of colonial and ethnic domination in Kashmir. In the final section, I use local Kashmiri reportage on Kashmiri women’s views, subjective experience, and collective resistance to contest (a) constructs of the apolitical, victimised, agency-less Kashmiri Muslim woman, and (b) state claims to Kashmiri, especially Kashmiri women’s endorsement of the revocation. Kashmiri women’s resistance, I conclude, is part of a Kashmiri struggle underpinned by the universal principles of justice and liberty; it symbolises the need for a just and peaceful resolution to Kashmir’s tragedy.

Association of -675 4G/5G PAI-1 and -2518A/G MCP-1 genetic polymorphisms with polycystic ovary syndrome in Kashmiri women: A case control study.

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a highly prevalent endocrine disorder among females of fertile age. It has been speculated to be associated with low-grade chronic inflammation like other inflammatory response-driven multifactorial illnesses such as diabetes mellitus (DM) and cancer. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) are biomarkers of inflammation and endothelial dysfunction, respectively. These have been found to be elevated in PCOS patients. The current research reveals that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in their genes are strongly associated with the elevation of these biomarkers. The goal of this study was to see if there was a link between PAI-1 -675 4G/5G and MCP-1 -2518 A/G polymorphisms with the occurrence of PCOS. This study included 220 PCOS participants and 220 healthy controls. The allele-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) methods were used to investigate PAI-1-675 4G/5G and MCP-1 -2518A/G SNPs, respectively. The -675 4G/5G SNP in the PAI-1 gene was strongly linked to PCOS. The odds ratio (OR) for the 4G/4G genotype was (OR = 3.2; P = 0.001), whereas the OR for the 4G/5G genotype was (OR = 2.39; P = 0.001). The carriers with the 4G/4G and 4G/5G genotypes showed significantly increasing trends in the triglyceride levels (P < 0.05). The genotypic frequency of the -2518 A/G MCP-1 SNP differed significantly between the PCOS patients and healthy controls; the GG genotype remained a strong predictor of PCOS (OR = 8.7; P = 0.01) and the AG genotype (OR = 2.40; P = 0.01), indicating an elevated risk of predisposing women to PCOS. There was a significant variation in the glucose 2-h levels between -2518A/G MCP-1 genotypes with AG heterozygous and GG mutant genotype showing increasing trends of glucose 2-h levels (P < 0.05). Both PAI-1 -675 4G/5G and MCP-1 -2518A/G polymorphisms are associated with predisposition to PCOS and its complications in Kashmiri women.

Clinical Manifestations of Hyperandrogenism and Ovulatory Dysfunction Are Not Associated with His1058 C/T SNP (rs1799817) Polymorphism of Insulin Receptor Gene Tyrosine Kinase Domain in Kashmiri Women with PCOS.

Background Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common endocrine metabolic disorder affecting premenopausal women. Besides primary features like anovulation, hyperandrogenism, and polycystic ovaries, women with PCOS present with multiple metabolic, cardiovascular, and psychological disorders. The etiology is multifactorial and the different genetic variants are suggested to play an important role in pathogenesis. Insulin resistance is a ubiquitous finding in PCOS and SNPs in genes involved in the insulin signaling pathway are possible candidates that can explain the development of clinical manifestations of PCOS. Aim We aimed to investigate the association of INSR His1058 C/T (rs1799817) single nucleotide polymorphism with PCOS in Kashmiri women. The genotypic-phenotypic correlation of the tested SNP with hyperandrogenism, ovulatory dysfunction, and metabolic markers was evaluated. Results The allele frequency (OR = 1.00, 95% CI = 0.67–1.48, χ2 = 0.01, P=0.99) and genotype distribution (χ2 = 3.73, P=0.15) in INSR C/T polymorphism were comparable with controls. No significant association was found with PCOS in dominant (P=0.194), recessive (P=0.442), and homo vs. het. (P=0.5) genotype models. Genotype-phenotype correlation analysis revealed that variant TT genotype had significantly higher HOMA (P=0.029) and reduced insulin sensitivity QUICKI (P=0.037) values. There was no significant variation in the prevalence of hirsutism, acne, alopecia, menstrual disturbances, acanthosis nigricans, and obesity (all P > 0.05) in different INSR C/T genotypes. Conclusion The INSR C/T SNP (rs1799817) does not increase the risk of PCOS in Kashmiri women. This SNP is unlikely to play a significant role in the development and manifestation of clinical symptoms of polycystic ovary syndrome.

Freda Bedi Looking “From a Woman’s Window” on Kashmir

In 1943, Freda Bedi – a woman who was English by birth but who made her life in South Asia – wrote a pioneering weekly column “From a Woman’s Window” for a leading nationalist-minded daily newspaper in Punjab. Four of these columns were about Kashmir, touching on the rising tide of nationalist politics there and women’s participation in the emerging popular movement led by Sheikh Abdullah. This article republishes these four columns and explores who Freda Bedi was, how she came to be engaged in radical Kashmiri nationalism and why her writing continues to merit attention. Some of her observations prefigure the women’s movement which emerged several decades later. “Alone a woman is helpless and knows it,” she wrote concerning the grievances of non-privileged Kashmiri women. “Together with her sisters bound by common trouble and suffering she can show greater strength than she or the world dreams of”. Freda Bedi’s subsequent engagement with Kashmir is also described – including her participation in the Quit Kashmir agitation against princely rule of 1946 and in the Kashmir women’s militia of 1947–1948.

Androgen receptor coregulator long noncoding RNA CTBP1-AS is associated with polycystic ovary syndrome in Kashmiri women.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is one of the most common reproductive, endocrine, and metabolic disorder in premenopausal women. Even though the pathophysiology of PCOS is complex and obscure, the disorder is prominently considered as the syndrome of hyperandrogenism. C-Terminal binding protein 1 antisense (CTBP1-AS) acts as a novel androgen receptor regulating long noncoding RNA (lncRNA). Therefore, the present study was aimed to establish the possible association of androgen receptor regulating long noncoding RNA CTBP1-AS with PCOS. A total of 178 subjects including 105 PCOS cases and 73 age-matched healthy controls were recruited for the study. The anthropometric, hormonal, and biochemical parameters of all subjects were analyzed. Total RNA was isolated from peripheral venous blood and expression analysis was done by quantitative real-time PCR. The correlation analysis was performed to evaluate the association between and various clinical parameters and lncRNA CTBP1-AS expression. The mean expression level of CTBP1-AS was found to be significantly higher in the PCOS women than in the healthy controls (-lnCTBP1-AS, 4.23 ± 1.68 versus 1.24 ± 0.29, P < 0.001). Furthermore, subjects with higher expression level of CTBP1-AS had significantly higher risk of PCOS compared to subjects with low levels of CTBP1-AS expression (actual OR = 11.36, 95% CI = 5.59-23.08, P < 0.001). The area under receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve was 0.987 (SE 0.006, 95% CI 0.976-0.99). However, lncRNA CTBP1-AS was found to have no association with different clinical characteristics of PCOS. In conclusion, androgen receptor coregulating lncRNA CTBP1-AS is associated with PCOS women and high expression of CTBP1-AS is a risk factor for PCOS in Kashmiri women.

Through Their Eyes: Women and Human Security in Kashmir

‘Women’s responsibilities call upon them to function in many spheres of human experience … (and so) their perspective on human security is comprehensive, including factors overlooked by the state security paradigm’ (Reardon, 2010a, The gender imperative: Human security vs state security, Routledge, p. 16). Recognising this, the following research article records threats to human security in Kashmir as seen from the point of view of a representative cross-section of Kashmiri women. It argues that in the context of the Kashmir valley, no discussion of security is complete without broadening the perspective from state security to human security. Again, no analysis of human security in Kashmir is complete without taking into account Kashmiri women’s experience of human security threats. The lived experiences of women in Kashmir and their perspectives should be at the heart of any human security analysis. This article aims at recording these threats faced by Kashmiri women in their daily lives, using a case study model. It records the lived experiences of 20 women from different ethnicities, religions, regions and locations within the valley. In doing so, it acknowledges not only the constraints of the case study model but also the centrality of women’s rights to identify and confront the threats to their conceptions and experiences of security. It limits itself to the Kashmir valley where the worst of the violence has occurred since 1989. Twenty women from seven districts—Srinagar, Pulwama, Budgam, Kulgam, Anantnag, Baramulla and Kupwara—have been interviewed over a 6-month period. In order to understand diverse conceptions and experiences of threats to human security, care was taken to include women from diverse ethnic and religious communities. The study covers Sikh, Sunni and Shia Muslim, Gujjar, Pahari and Kashmiri Pandit women.

Coloniality and/as Development in Kashmir: Econonationalism

This article identifies the colonial imperative of ‘we must develop them, with or without their consent’, which is used by the Indian state in order to dominate Kashmiri Muslims, and argues that this notion of development combines patriarchal silencing of the subjugated as well as a gendered fantasy of liberating oppressed Kashmiri women and minorities. While the colonial nature of Indian rule over Kashmir has been a long-term phenomenon, the focus in this article will primarily be on a specific political transformation imposed by the Indian state since August 2019, when even the pretence of autonomy and recognition was given up, and all phenomena constituting coloniality became conspicuous and acute. Adopting a feminist lens, I highlight nine features of contemporary Indian coloniality in Kashmir: denial of consent, paternalism, violence, enforced silencing, lack of accountability, arbitrariness, divide and rule, humiliation and a specious idea of development. I further argue that such a notion of coloniality as development is better understood as ‘econonationalism’ (akin to homonationalism and femonationalism), where the supposed liberatory ideas are rhetorically deployed to mask a dehumanising subjugation.