Kamennyi Ambar Research Articles

Between Volga and Ural River basins: concerning family ties of the Abashevo and Sintashta population of the Bronze Age in the context of genetic data

The focus of our study is the burials of two young men who died in distant lands (Middle Volga region and Southern Urals). Whole genome sequencing revealed a remarkable genetic similarity between the individuals and their potential decent from common ancestors. Men from the excavations of the Pepkino mound (burial No. 8, bronze caster) and buried No. 3 at the settlement of Maloyuldashevo 1 (sacrificed individual) were the owners of haplogroup R1b (Z2103) with a common paternal ancestor. The search of genome fragments identical by origin (IBD method — Identity-By-Descent) showed patterns inherited from a common ancestor without recombination. In a pairwise comparison of Pepkino caster with other samples, the probability of the occurrence of at least one IBD fragment in the genomes was more than 0.9 for both the Maloyldashevo sample, as well for a female (sample POST_131) from Southern Bavaria with close AMS date. Using the PCA method, we identified the owner of a similar genotype in a burial of the Sintashta culture (Kamennyi Ambar 5 burial ground, mound 2, burial 16), for which a mixed origin was previously established with the participation of West Siberian hunter-gatherers and steppe dwellers of the Bronze Age. In addition, among other genetic outliers of the same necropolis, there were men with haplogroup of the Y chromosome R1b, which brings them closer to the individuals we studied from the Pepkino mound and Maloyuldashevo settlement. Thus, the distribution of a mobile group has been shown, which was incorporated into different cultural traditions.

Seasonality of Sintashta Funerary Rites (Based on the Kamennyi Ambar-5 Bronze Age Cemetery)

Based on archaeological materials from the Kamennyi Ambar-5 cemetery, we test the hypothesis about the connection between the seasonality of pastoral practices and funerary rites during the Late Bronze Age (early 2nd millennium BC). We studied growth layers in the teeth of 24 cows, 19 sheep/goats, 14 horses, a dog, and ten humans from 17 graves. We combined samples from various species from the same contexts into eight assemblages. With regard to animals, differences in seasons of death were revealed only once. 70 % of graves were arranged in spring and 30 % in autumn. Therefore, the hypothesis about the seasonal use of the cemetery can be supported at least partially. The contemporaneous settlement of Kamennyi Ambar demonstrates a similar tendency in the seasonality of animal slaughtering. However, the reasons for slaughtering at the settlement differed from those in the cemetery. At the settlement site, it was motivated by practical needs, and in themortuary site, only by the seasonality of human deaths, specifically Ьy a higher frequency of deaths in late winter and spring. Also, postmortem selection is possiЬle, whereЬy kurgan burials were arranged only for some individuals. In practice, several of the above factors overlapped, resulting in an anomalous composition of the buried cohort (disproportion of sexes and a higher proportion of individuals who died at the peak of vital activity).

The Sintashta-Petrovka settlement organization during the Late Bronze Age in the steppes of the southern Urals: A case of the Kamennyi Ambar settlement

In this paper, we present the results of an intensive study of the surroundings of the Late Bronze Age walled settlement of Kamennyi Ambar in the southern Urals, Russia. We aimed to discover and study plausible cultural layers in close vicinity to the surrounding wall in order to receive comparative data from materials that, as we expected, people had left there. To study the area, we drilled out 130 cores, excavated 17 test pits, and conducted 10 cross-sections of natural ravines near the site, which revealed cultural layers and materials. The application of exploratory data analysis allowed us their characterization. By comparing data from inside with data from outside the wall, we hypothesized that the cultural layer is a product of other activities than dumping garbage from inside or conducting activities such as smelting. Instead, the area could be occupied by a semi-mobile group of people who lived there only part-time, presumably, during the winters. Perhaps, people lived in movable tents that cannot be easily found archaeologically.

Chronological relationship between the fortified settlement of Kamennyi Ambar and the Kamennyi Ambar-5 cemetery in the Southern Trans-Urals: capabilities of the Bayesian statistics

By means of the Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates, a comparison of chronologies of the Kamennyi Ambar settlement and the cemetery of Kamennyi Ambar-5 of the Late Bronze Age Syntashta-Petrovka period has been carried out. Both sites are situated in the valley of the Karagaily-Ayat River in Kartalinsky district of Chelyab-insk Region (Russia). Comparison of the pottery assemblages of the settlement and the cemetery demonstrates their similarity, which suggests existence of a genetic link between the sites. The purpose of this work is devel-opment of a generalized chronological model of the two monuments. This is achieved by comparison of uncali-brated intervals of radiocarbon dates and calculation of chronological boundaries of the existence of the settle-ment and cemetery by means of Bayesian modeling of the calibrated dates. The method consists in that, in the beginning, the stratigraphic position of each date is determined, and then the dates suitable for the analysis are arranged in the chronological order and calibrated, while the algorithm of the OxCal 4.4 calibration program is queried for calculation of the boundaries of the given periods and their duration. Also, the paper reports complete sets of the radiocarbon dates: 61 dates have been obtained from the materials of the settlement of Kamennyi Ambar, while 19 measurements originate from the Kamennyi Ambar-5 cemetery. Correlation of the radiocarbon dates and development of the Bayesian chronological models have demonstrated contemporaneousness of the settlement and the cemetery with slightly later beginning of the activity at the latter. This observation is in agree-ment with the concept of the genetic link between the sites and, arguably, can be extended onto other pairs of fortified settlement — kurgan cemetery attributed to the Sintashta-Petrovka period. Our conclusion is also consis-tent with the concept of building the complex of monuments by a newly-arrived population, who founded a settle-ment, occupied the new territory for some time, while the first deaths occurred some time afterwards. That said, the settlement of Kamennyi Ambar existed for no longer than a century in the 1950s — 1860s BC, while the cemetery of Kamennyi Ambar-5 was used for 70–80 years within the same chronological interval.

Археозоологические свидетельства рабочей эксплуатации крупного рогатого скота в бронзовом веке Южного Зауралья

The article presents the results of the analysis of several types of bone pathologies of the postcranial skeleton of cows, bulls and oxen in order to identify the possible fact of cattle exploitation for work. The material comes from several settlements of the steppe and forest-steppe zones of the Southern Trans-Urals of the Sintashta and Alakul cultures of the Bronze Age (the border between Russia and Kazakhstan). The paper is based on the results of studying the pathologies of modern non-working cattle in the Southern Trans-Urals. Analysis of the selected pathologies and their comparison with modern material showed a strong degree of overlap with each other. The overwhelming majority of pathologies in the form of minor lipping and exostoses of metapodials and phalanxes reflect age-related changes, as well as other factors that are not associated with the physical exploitation of bulls and oxen. Single pathologies from the Kamennyi Ambar settlement and the age of the animals from which they originate make it possible to reconstruct the working use of bulls even in the context of the complete absence of other evidence of animal exploitation for this purpose. However, we cannot completely exclude the possibility that these changes may be caused not only by increased stress on the joint during the working exploitation. Severe forms of pathologies on the bones of cows, most likely, reflect the features of a less developed skeletal system in comparison with bulls, rather than the fact of working exploitation.

Металлургические шлаки и фрагменты руд с поселения бронзового века Каменный Амбар (Южное Зауралье): ключ к определению источников медного сырья

Abstract: The paper presents the characteristics of metallurgical slags and copper ore fragments from the Kamenny Ambar settlement of the Bronze Age. According to the mineral and chemical compositions we have distinguished two types of the slags: Cr-rich spinel containing olivine slags and sulfide-containing olivine slags. The Cr-rich spinel containing olivine slags are the product of oxidized ore from the copper deposits in ultramafic rocks exploited in the early Sintashta-Petrovka period the settlement functioning. The sulfide-containing olivine slags are the result of the secondary sulfide ores from the massive-sulfide, and less likely copper porphyry deposits during the latter Srubnaya-Alakul period. A similar change in the copper ore raw material type was also recorded in other Bronze Age settlements in the Southern Urals. In the Kamenny Ambar settlement and analogs, we have defined the main indicating minerals which allow us to determine the source for the Cu raw metal in historical time: Cr-rich spinels, sulfides, and tourmalines. Keywords: metallurgical slags, Bronze Age, Kamenny Ambar, South Ural, copper ores, mineral inclusions Acknowledgements: This work was supported by the Russian Science Foundation project No. 16–18– 10332‑P: analysis of slags and ores was carried out by M. N. Ankushev, V. V. Zaykov, A. M. Yuminov; the archaeological aspect of the work was analyzed by L. N. Koryakova, I. V. Molchanov (chronostratigraphic distribution of slags), S. E. Panteleeva (chronostratigraphic distribution of ceramics and ores). The authors are grateful to I. P. Alaeva, D. A. Artemyev, E. V. Belogub, A. V. Epimakhov, V. A. Kotlyarov, G. F. Lonschakova, M. S. Svirenko, L. G. Udachina. Filippova K. A., Khvorov P. V., Churin E. I., Sharapova S. V.

Wells as a Source of Cultural and Chronological Information: The Case of Kamennyi Ambar, Southern Trans-Urals

Wells as a Source of Cultural and Chronological Information: The Case of Kamennyi Ambar, Southern Trans-Urals

Woodworking in the Bronze Age Southern Trans-Urals (the case study of the fortified settlement of Kamenny Ambar)

The paper presents the description and analysis of the collection of wood (formwork elements and objects) from wells of the Bronze Age fortified settlement of Kamenny Ambar (Chelyabinsk Oblast). Within the settlement, presented are the layers of the Sintashta, Petrovka and Srubnaya-Alakul traditions, covering the period of the 21st–17th c. BC. We give a short description of the forest resources of the study area. In Southern Urals, wood can be found in the form of charred remains, sometimes in post holes, in burial structures of various state of preserva-tion, as well as in the Bronze Age wells. The latter has been the source of fragments of formwork and some household items for this study. According to palaeobotanical data, the local landscape represented forests mixed with steppe and forb meadows. The total area of forestlands around the settlement in the Bronze Age was roughly similar to the modern one. The analysis of charcoal and wood from wells indicates that pine (51 %) and birch (47 %) were the most common, and to a lesser extent — willow and alder (2 %). Prevailing were the pine trunks with 5 to 30, less often 50, rings. The types of formwork and tools used in their construction have been determined. The importance of woodworking among the household industries of the settlement has been assessed. Remains of wooden structures have been found on the bottom of 16 examined wells, although there may have been more, judging by discrete fragments of wood decay. The wood is represented by stakes, half-logs, chopping blocks, planks, branches, charcoal and fragments of bark. Restored specimens have been examined visually and using a microscope in order to determine the wood species and process tools, and the results have been put down into the database. In the process of excavation, two types of formwork were identified: 1) a wattle cylinder made of twigs intertwined through vertical stakes, and 2) sheeting of the shaft with vertically placed and tightly fitted boards and/or half-logs of small diameter. In a number of wells, the type of construction could not be accurately determined. In addition to wooden structures, wooden objects were also found at the bottom of several wells. It is possible to state that the inhabitants of the Kamenny Ambar settlement were skilled in wood processing. Available data indicate that carpentry craft was highly developed throughout the entire Bronze Age period. Admittedly, peo-ple knew how to joint wooden parts of structures. Since there are no finds of metal nails, we are confident that they used alternative means, such as ropes and other carpentry techniques, in particular, groove joining. An ob-ject with a precise rectangular groove was found in one of the wells. These materials demonstrate the presence of good engineering knowledge, manifested not only in the search for new technologies for the well construction, but also in the overall architecture of the settlement.

Complex of the Petrovka Pottery from the Fortified Settlement of Kamenny Ambar: Analysis of Morphology and Ornamentation

Complex of the Petrovka Pottery from the Fortified Settlement of Kamenny Ambar: Analysis of Morphology and Ornamentation

The absolute chronology of the Late Bronze Age settlements Kammenyi Ambar and Ust’ye I in the Southern Trans-Urals and its Bayesian analysis

In this paper, we examine the series of AMS radiocarbon measurements (N = 52) obtained from the Late Bronze Age settlements of Kamennyi Ambar and Usty’e I in the Southern Trans-Urals, Russia. The exploratory data analysis applied to uncalibrated dates allows for the batches and outliers isolation. Furthermore, based on the facts of stratigraphy and application of the Bayesian statistics, we reconstruct the chronology, estimate spans of habitation, and discuss issues of the existing samples. As the first step of the analysis, we consider archaeo-logical contexts of the measurements and statistically identify apparent outliers. Despite the small sample size, the dataset from Ust’ye I obtained in the way that allows to date stratigraphically isolated construction/utilization episodes and thus are highly reliable. At least five measurements from Kamennyi Ambar date the natural events before the settlement construction and serve as upper limits in models. On the second stage of the analysis, the Bayesian models of the sites’ chronology constructed with OxCal 4.3. For Ust’ye I, we designed a three-phase model that allows to date two early habitational phases during which the walls and ditches were built around the settlement. The third phase defines the lower limit of the previous period, as this phase consists of a single radio-carbon measurement. The model suggests the existence of the gap between the two earliest stages, associated with the Sintashta and Petrovka ceramic types. While the sample size is small, this hypothesis agrees well with the site’s stratigraphy, as the settlement was re-modeled entirely at least once. We designed two models for Kamennyi Ambar. The first model includes all available data and consists of three phases: 1) natural events be-fore the settlement construction; 2) the early «walled» phase; 3) the late «unwalled» phase. The second model incorporates data on the wells’ stratigraphy and uses only measurements from the wells. The models almost the same for the early habitational phase, but the modeled chronology of the late phase differs drastically, as the wells-based model condenses the phase and pushes it earlier. Further, the models suggest that Kamennyi Ambar existed only for about 50 years, and Usty’e I for nearly 100 years. The habitational phases within the same peri-ods are partially desynchronized, and possible gaps in the habitation suggested by the models. One possible explanation of the short-term habitation spans and differences is that people needed to resettle regularly as re-source depletion made the areas inhospitable for the communities of the livestock breeders.

Architecture of fortified settlements belonging to the Sintashta-Petrovka type in the existing versions of visual reconstructions

The article analyses the main visual reconstructions of settlements belonging to the Sintashta-Petrovka type (SPT settlements): dwellings, fortifications and entire settlements. SPT settlements are located in the Southern Trans-Urals and Northern Kazakhstan. The stage of their habitation, which includes the use of fortifications and the regular layout of settlements, is associated with the materials of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures, dating from the end of the 3rd to the first quarter of 2nd millennia BC. Traces and remains of buildings, preserved in a strongly transformed form in the occupation layers of sites and discovered during excavations and remote studies, constitute sources for reconstructions. The fragmented state of the sources explains the highly conditional charac-ter of reconstructions of entire structures. Early reconstructions appeared in the early to mid-1990s. They show the architecture of two settlements (Sintashta and Arkaim), whose dwellings are depicted with standardised lay-outs, flat roofs and shared longitudinal walls made from soil blocks. The fortifications were depicted as massive, complex structures, styled after the concept of the «Country of Towns». These images have become «classic», and authors of all future versions made a start from them. Most versions are dedicated exclusively to Arkaim and are rather controversial, often exaggerating the monumentality and complexity of the architecture of this site. The proposed reconstructions of Arkaim are not accompanied by a reliable study of archaeological sources. There are reconstructions of other SPT settlements exhibiting some differences from ‘classic’ visualisations. They constitute 3d models of individual sections of buildings (dwelling No. 5 of Kamenny Ambar, dwellings and fortifications of Ustye I), images of two different phases in the life of the entire Kamenny Ambar settlement, as well as a series of sketch drawings depicting these sites as settlements of pastoral farmers that have fairly simple fortifications rather than grand ‘proto-cities’. Due to the fragmented state of sources, the lack of procedures for reconstructing such architecture and insufficient argumentation, the existing reconstructions constitute largely a visual form of transla-ting subjective ideas of different authors about the architecture of SPT settlements.

Пространственное распределение керамики в слое укрепленного поселения Каменный Амбар: к реконструкции основных строительных фаз

В статье представлены результаты изучения пространственного распределения керамики в слое укрепленного поселения Каменный Амбар (эпоха бронзы, Южное Зауралье). Много- слойный характер памятника определил главные задачи работы: выяснение стратиграфического соотношения керамических групп и установление их связи с выявленными структурами. Ис- следование базировалось на методике индивидуальной фиксации находок. Пространственный анализ проведен поэтапно в четырех изученных раскопками участках, расположенных в северо- восточной, северной, западной и восточной частях поселения. В ходе работы были рассмотрены стратиграфия и планиграфия культурных остатков, определены количественное соотношение типологических групп и условия их залегания в объектах. Полученные наблюдения позволи- ли установить последовательность проживания на поселении носителей разных культурных традиций и соответственно выделить три основные строительные фазы (синташтинскую, петровскую и срубно-алакульскую). На протяжении данных фаз происходили существенные изменения в структуре поселения, по-видимому, в какой-то степени обусловленные демогра- фическими процессами, и трансформация архитектурных стереотипов.

Trace Elements of Cu-(Fe)-Sulfide Inclusions in Bronze Age Copper Slags from South Urals and Kazakhstan: Ore Sources and Alloying Additions

In the paper, the results of an investigation into trace elements found in slag sulfides from 14 archaeological Bronze Age settlements of the Cis-Urals, Trans-Urals, and North and Central Kazakhstan are presented. The study used Cu-(Fe)-sulfides as indicator minerals. Cu-(Fe)-S minerals in slags are primarily represented by covellite and chalcocite, as well as by rarer bornite and single chalcopyrite grains. Slag sulfides formed relic clasts and neogenic droplets of different shapes and sizes. Supergenic ores in the Bronze Age in Urals and Kazakhstan played a significant role in the mineralogical raw material base. In sulfides, the main indicator elements, Fe, Co, Ni, As, Se, Te, Sb, Ag, Pb, and Bi, are important markers of copper deposit types. Sulfides from olivine Cr-rich spinel containing slags of Ustye, Turganik are characterized by As-Co-Ni high contents and confined to copper deposits in ultramafic rocks. Olivine sulfide-containing slags from Kamenny Ambar, Konoplyanka and Sarlybay 3 are characterized by Co-Se-Te assemblage and confined to mafic rocks. Glassy sulfide-containing slags from Katzbakh 6, Turganik, Ordynsky Ovrag, Ivanovskoe, Tokskoe, Bulanovskoe 2, Kuzminkovskoe 2, Pokrovskoe, Rodnikovoe, and Taldysay are characterized by Ag-Pb-(Ba)-(Bi) assemblage and confined to cupriferous sandstone deposits. High As, Sb, Sn, and Ba contents found in slags can be seen as indicators of alloying or flux components in primary copper smelting. These include samples from Ustye, Katzbakh 6, Rodnikovoe, and Taldysay sites, where high Ba and As slag contents are identified. The compilation of a database with a broad sample of sulfide compositions from Bronze Age slags and mines in the Urals and Kazakhstan will permit the further identification of ore types and raw materials associated with a particular deposit.

Bronze Age diet and economy: New stable isotope data from the Central Eurasian steppes (2100-1700 BC)

This paper presents new stable carbon (δ13C) and nitrogen (δ15N) isotope data obtained from human and animal remains from the Kamennyi Ambar 5 cemetery (KA-5) (Southeastern Urals, Russian Federation) and represents one of the largest stable isotope datasets from a single prehistoric site in the steppes of Central Eurasia. These results are compared with other regional faunal, botanical and archaeological datasets to examine late prehistoric trends in pastoralism and human dietary patterns. The findings of this research emphasize a subsistence regime consisting of broad-spectrum resources that include domestic and wild animal species, wild plants and fish. This study contributes to current knowledge regarding the diversity in isotopic values of human and animal remains and indicates that variation in subsistence was related to distinct local resource biomes and economic strategies. These results suggest a more complex model of late prehistoric subsistence trends in the steppes that emphasizes the need for enhanced micro-regional studies combining environmental, biological, and archaeological datasets. The study presented here also provides information on the most detailed bioarchaeological study of human remains and stable isotopes to date related to the Sintashta archaeological pattern.

Life in the fast lane: Settled pastoralism in the Central Eurasian Steppe during the Middle Bronze Age.

We tested the hypothesis that the purported unstable climate in the South Urals region during the Middle Bronze Age (MBA) resulted in health instability and social stress as evidenced by skeletal response. The skeletal sample (n = 99) derived from Kamennyi Ambar 5 (KA-5), a MBA kurgan cemetery (2040-1730 cal. BCE, 2 sigma) associated with the Sintashta culture. Skeletal stress indicators assessed included cribra orbitalia, porotic hyperostosis, dental enamel hypoplasia, and tibia periosteal new bone growth. Dental disease (caries, abscess, calculus, and periodontitis) and trauma were scored. Results were compared to regional data from the nearby Samara Valley, spanning the Early to Late Bronze Age (EBA, LBA). Lesions were minimal for the KA-5 and MBA-LBA groups except for periodontitis and dental calculus. No unambiguous weapon injuries or injuries associated with violence were observed for the KA-5 group; few injuries occurred at other sites. Subadults (<18 years) formed the majority of each sample. At KA-5, subadults accounted for 75% of the sample with 10% (n = 10) estimated to be 14-18 years of age. Skeletal stress markers and injuries were uncommon among the KA-5 and regional groups, but a MBA-LBA high subadult mortality indicates elevated frailty levels and inability to survive acute illnesses. Following an optimal weaning program, subadults were at risk for physiological insult and many succumbed. Only a small number of individuals attained biological maturity during the MBA, suggesting that a fast life history was an adaptive regional response to a less hospitable and perhaps unstable environment.

Weaning practices among pastoralists: New evidence of infant feeding patterns from Bronze Age Eurasia

This paper investigates infant feeding practices through stable carbon (δ13 C) and nitrogen (δ15 N) isotopic analyses of human bone collagen from Kamennyi Ambar 5, a Middle Bronze Age cemetery located in central Eurasia. The results presented are unique for the time period and region, as few cemeteries have been excavated to reveal a demographic cross-section of the population. Studies of weaning among pastoral societies are infrequent and this research adds to our knowledge of the timing, potential supplementary foods, and cessation of breastfeeding practices. Samples were collected from 41 subadults (<15 years) and 27 adults (15+ years). Isotopic reference sets from adult humans as well as faunal remains were utilized as these form the primary and complementary foods fed to infants. Slight shifts in δ13 C and δ15 N values revealed that weaning was a multi-stage process (breastfeeding, weaning, and complete cessation of nursing) that began at 6 months of age, occurred over several years of early childhood, and was completed by 4 years of age. Our results indicate that weaning was a multi-stage process that was unique among late prehistoric pastoralist groups in Eurasia that were dependent on milk products as a supplementary food. Our discussion centers on supporting this hypothesis with modern information on central and east Eurasian herding societies including the age at which complementary foods are introduced, the types of complementary foods, and the timing of the cessation of breastfeeding. Integral to this work is the nature of pastoral economies and their dependence on animal products, the impact of complementary foods on nutrition and health, and how milk processing may have affected nutrition content and digestibility of foods. This research on Eurasian pastoralists provides insights into the complexities of weaning among prehistoric pastoral societies as well as the potential for different complementary foods to be incorporated into infant diets in the past.

Landscape development and soils around the Bronze Age settlement Kamennyi Ambar, southern Trans-Urals, Russia

Landscape and soils around the prehistoric Bronze Age site of Kamennyi Ambar, southern Trans-Urals, have been studied. The topography of the Trans-Ural peneplain was formed by denudation during Mesozoic and Tertiary. The resulting gently undulating plain was subsequently dissected during Pleistocene under periglacial climatic conditions, and wide valleys with gentle slopes were formed. The saprolized pre-quaternary rocks are covered by thin layers of quaternary sediments, which are sometimes loess-containing. Deposits of in-situ loess are almost absent. Most probably, deluviation under periglacial conditions played the dominant role and prevented the formation of loess deposits. Thin loess deposits are preserved only in some flat watershed positions. The Quaternary layers sometimes contain strongly weathered coarse bedrock components indicating a solifluidal genesis of the cover beds on the slopes. The degree of weathering of the autochthonous components increases towards the water divide where the cover beds consist almost completely of pre-Quaternary saprolite. The slopes of the Karagaily Ajat valley are structured by numerous smaller tributary valleys which usually have a yellow-brown loam fill and show in their lower parts gully-like linear erosion features. Decalcified Haplic Chernozems are prevalent soils in the fills of the tributary valleys, at the lower slopes of the Karagaily Ajat-valley, and in the loams of the Lower Terrace. When clay cutans and coatings were observed in the subsoil the soils were identified as Luvic Chernozems. On the gentle slopes, Mollic Leptosols or Leptic Regosols (Mollic) are developed in thin cover beds. Up the slope, the depth of the humus horizons decreases. When examining the layer succession of the near surface underground and the associated soils along transects across the tributary valleys, it was found that the thickness of the cover beds on the slopes increases towards the valley floor. In the soils of the Lower Terrace varying salt contents can be found. Mollic Solonetz were identified therein. Within the excavation area in Kamennyi Ambar, Anthrosols and Solonetz were found in the compacted layers of the older Sintashta culture, while Haplic Chernozems (colluvic) with similar features like the virgin soils have developed in the fillings of younger pit houses.

Archaeobotanical analysis of plant use at Kamennyi Ambar, a Bronze Age fortified settlement of the Sintashta culture in the southern Trans-Urals steppe, Russia

This paper presents the results of plant macro-remain and charcoal analyses from a fortified settlement of the Sintashta archaeological culture in the southern Trans-Urals, Russia. The work was carried out within the scope of a German/Russian research project and represents the first systematic studies on Bronze Age plant material in the region. Previous archaeological and archaeozoological investigations have revealed that the Sintashta economy was mainly based on livestock herding of cattle, small cattle and horses. There is additional evidence for fishing as well as some copper metallurgy, while the role of agriculture is still being discussed. Archaeobotanical studies therefore focused on the question whether the Bronze Age settlers cultivated, processed or stored crop plants. All cultural layers and important settlement features were systematically sampled, wet-sieved and subjected to plant macro-remain analysis. Anthracological (charcoal) samples were taken from burnt structures and charcoal concentrations. As no evidence for either cultivated plants or agricultural practices was found in the settlement, it can be concluded that farming was not practised at Kamennyi Ambar, and that the Sintashta economy was exclusively based on animal husbandry and fishing in that steppe region. The charred plant remains found in the settlement represent a broad spectrum of wild plants which can be attributed to vegetation units like small woodlands, steppe, ruderal steppe, meadow steppe and the riparian zone. As supported by palynological studies, Bronze Age vegetation patterns are largely comparable with those of the modern steppe environment. Since some of the recorded taxa have the potential to serve as food, fodder or for craft purposes, the use of wild plants at Kamennyi Ambar must be considered. The charcoal analysis reveals the dominance of Pinus sylvestris and Betula sp., representing a typical tree taxa spectrum from the steppe region during the Bronze Age as well as present times. It can be concluded that wood was readily available for construction material and fuel.

Palynological and sedimentological evidence from the Trans-Ural steppe (Russia) and its palaeoecological implications for the sudden emergence of Bronze Age sedentarism

At the turn of the second to the third millennium bc, fortified and systematically organized settlements along with a developed metallurgy emerged in the Trans-Ural steppe. In order to reconstruct the related vegetation and climatic changes in the area and to detect effects of human impact during the respective Bronze-Age Sintashta-Petrovka and Srubnaya-Alakul cultures (2100–1650 cal bc), palynological and sedimentological investigations accompanying archaeological excavations were carried out. Statistical analyses of pollen spectra from two sediment cores in the immediate vicinity of the settlement Kamennyi Ambar demonstrate substantial similarities in Bronze Age and present vegetation covers. Higher percentages of arboreal pollen, especially in respect of deciduous trees, and consistently high values of Artemisia within the regional spectra suggest that Bronze Age cultures developed in a relatively humid environment. Simultaneously, higher values of Chenopodiaceae, Plantago and Cichorioideae point to steppe degradation at local scales, whereas regional vegetation appears to have been relatively unaffected by human activities. Although more than 30 localities in the micro-region of Karagaily Ayat were analyzed, none of these sediment cores accounts for a continuous sedimentation during the last 9,000 years. Our results reveal that climatic fluctuations are not always directly reflected by sediment formation, with many non-climatic factors, such as post-sedimentary processes, local morphology and erosion believed to be crucial. Only the use of high resolution AMS radiocarbon dating is suitable to detect hiatuses, hence providing a valuable clue to the interpretation of palaeoenvironmental conditions.

Cheek-pieces for a Horse Harness from the Kamenny Ambar Settlement

The article presents a description and analysis of harness cheek-pieces, fragments of which were recovered from the Bronze Age layer at the Kamenny Ambar settlement. The stratigraphic position of the artifacts is discussed along with data regarding typological, use-wear, and function analyses. One cheek-piece is attributed to the Sintashta and the other to the Petrovka cultural tradition. The chronological position of these finds is established, and the process of their manufacture and use reconstructed.