Kailash Sacred Landscape Research Articles

The sacred and the wild: Unpacking human-wildlife interaction in Indian part of Kailash Sacred Landscape

The negative interaction between humans and wildlife in the Indian Himalayas has increased in recent decades. Studies on human-wildlife negative interactions have primarily focused on protected areas. However, research on such interactions is limited in regions like the Indian part of Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL), where wildlife and humans share a common space. This study examined the patterns of crop damage, livestock depredation, human fatalities, seasonal and temporal variations, location-specific factors, and critical variables contributing to negative humanwildlife interactions in KSL India. We examined 574 incidences of livestock depredation, 123 incidences of human injury/death between 1984-2016, and 560 crop damage incidences between 2002-2017. Most incidences of human injury/ death and livestock depredation were by common leopards, followed by Asiatic black bears. Maize was the highest raided crop (n=202), followed by wheat (n=190) and paddy (n=168). Maximum incidences of crop loss were reported in 2017 (n=76), and the lowest was in 2002 (n=5). The hotspot maps of crop damage and livestock depredation revealed that the negative interaction between humans and wildlife was highest in the southern part of the landscape. The result predicted 195 villages as hotspots in the Indian part of KSL. Villages were identified at the forest range level. We found that 11 villages in Askot, 12 in Munshiyari, 17 in Berinag, 15 in Dharchula, 36 in Didihat, 61 in Gangolihat, and 43 in Pithoragarh forest ranges are severely affected by negative interaction with wildlife.

Unravelling vulnerabilities: mapping key hazards in the Gori Ganga watershed of Kumaon Himalaya for communication, conservation and management

The present study investigates the susceptibility of the Kailash Sacred Landscape in Uttarakhand's Pithoragarh district, focusing on regional-level disaster risk assessment in the Gori Ganga watershed as a case study and aims to prepare foundation maps for recurrent disasters like landslides, floods and forest fires. The techniques of remote sensing & geographic information systems, frequency ratio and correlation analytics were employed to perceive hazard-prone areas in the valley, using a variety of geographical, environmental and anthropogenic predictors. The accuracy of the maps generated by the modelling procedure was assessed using validation data and a receiver operating characteristics curve (ROC) with the area under the curve (AUC). The analysis revealed 83.5 km2 was extremely susceptible to flood incidents, 133.1 km2 was susceptible to landslides and 147 km2 was severely vulnerable to wildfires. The determined area under the curve value for flood susceptibility was 88.6%, followed by landslides at 89.5% and wildfires at 90.9%, showing that the model performed exceptionally well. The findings reveal that precipitation, lithology and elevation were the most significant variables in inducing floods. Precipitation, profile curvature, elevation and distance to thrust are the primary determinants of landslides, while closeness to the road and settlements, as well as vegetation indices, were significant predictors of fire events. The Lower Kumaon Himalayan valley region was recognized as highly vulnerable to all three major catastrophes. This study identifies potentially hazardous regions for adaptive sustainable conservation activities, involving local communities in decision-making to mitigate impacts and aid in preventing and managing impending landscape-level threats.

Multivariate statistical algorithms for landslide susceptibility assessment in Kailash Sacred landscape, Western Himalaya

Landslide susceptibility mapping plays an imperative role in mitigating hazards and determining the future direction of developmental activities in mountainous regions. Here, we used 518 landslide occurrences and nine landslide-conditioning parameters to build landslide vulnerability models in the Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL), India. Four multivariate statistical models were applied, namely the generalized linear model (GLM), maximum entropy (MaxEnt), Mahalanobis D2 (MD), and support vector machine (SVM), to calibrate and compare four maps of landslide susceptibility. The results demonstrated the outperformance of Mahalanobis D2 for predictability compared to other models obtained from the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC). The ensemble model data shows that 10.5% of the landscape has susceptible conditions for future landslides, whereas 89.50% of the landscape falls under the safe zone. The occurrence of landslides in the KSL is linked to the middle elevations, vicinity to water bodies, and the motorable roads. Furthermore, the observed patterns and the resulting models exhibit the major variables that cause landslides and their respective significance. The current modelling approach could provide baseline data at the regional scale to improve the developmental planning in the KSL.

Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii) and Blue Pine (P. wallichiana) Forests in West Nepal: Comparing Associated Plant Species

Chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) and blue pine (P. wallichiana) are two dominant tree species in the mid-hill forests of Nepal that also contribute significantly to the country’s total forest area. The associated vegetation pattern in pine forests is influenced by environmental and edaphic factors. The objective of this study was to determine the correlation between soil chemical properties and the composition of associated plant species of two pine forests in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. We used the quadrat sampling method to collect vegetation and soil data. Pearson’s correlation was used to determine the relationship between soil chemical properties. Generalized Linear model (GLM) to assess the effect of soil properties on species richness, and Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) for species composition. Our analysis showed that soil pH was negatively correlated with soil chemical properties and species richness of associated species. There was a high number of associated plant species in the blue pine forest than in chir pine forest. Associated plant species generally prefer high nitrogen and phosphorus content. Between the two pine forest types, there was a higher number of associated plant species in the blue pine forest than in chir pine forest. The study showed that two closely related pine forests differ in associated plant species diversity and richness. Soil nutrients play an important role in determining the species richness and composition but may not be the only factors affecting these patterns. Pine forests play an important role in the socio-economy from the national to community levels while the associated plant species have more significant functions in the livelihoods of local communities.

Local communities’ perception and attitude towards dynamic ecosystem in a part of Kailash sacred landscape - India

Most ecosystems are affected by various types of disturbances, which play an important role in shaping the structure of the individual population and the character of ecosystems as a whole. Perceptions and experiences of the local community about these disturbances play an important role in developing the various adaptation strategies and policies. The present study was conducted in the upper part of the Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) in India, situated in the Himkhola micro-watershed in the Chaundas valley of Dharchula block in the Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand state. Survey methods were used to recognize the condition of major ecosystems from the past to the present. Based on the interview the opinion of locals on transformed ecosystems are: i) the ecosystems and natural resources were in much better conditions in the past, ii) locals have been able to protect their natural resources to an extent due to their efforts and interventions and ability to recognize the factors that have caused these changes, iii) community is suffering from transformation and adapting, which has a negative impact on human mythological and traditional values in nature, and iv) conservation practices and promoting green employment may be achieved by engaging the local community only through regular discussions among stakeholders and the local community.

Perception and knowledge of community people on invasive Alien Plant species in Chandak-Aunla Ghat and Hat-Kalika watersheds of Kailash sacred landscape - India: A case study

Invasive alien plant species (IAPS) are considered the second most important agent after habitat destruction for species endangerment and extinction. Though dozens of alien invasive plant species (IAPS) occur in the Indian Himalayan region, information on distribution and perceived impact is lacking in the western Himalaya. In the present study, 701 randomly selected households in 45 villages were surveyed through questionnaire surveys in Chandak-Aunla Ghat (329) and Hat-Kalika (372) watersheds in Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL-India) to know their view on the issues associated with the IAPS and attitudes towards their management. The knowledge, perception, use and management strategies of different IAPS were analyzed. Only 39% of females and 27% of males had knowledge of IAPS. The highlights of the study are: i) Ageratina adenophora had the highest Relative Frequency of Citation value among 14 major IAPS in the study area, ii) informants of Hat-Kalika showed a low richness of knowledge and sharing with their family members as compared to Chandak-Aunla Ghat, iii) respondents perceived IAPS negatively and rated biological invasion and habitat loss as major environmental problem, iv) the major management strategies identified were restoration, eradication, community education and information, and v) perception and level of knowledge sharing on invasive species among age classes and gender have implications for stakeholders and policymakers in management of IAPS.

Competing perceptions of landscape in the Limi Valley: politics, ecology and pastoralism

A common response to the current global ecological crisis is the conservation of areas still somewhat spared from anthropogenic damage, in spite of an abundant literature evidencing the social and ecological shortcomings of top-down approaches to nature conservation. As part of the Kailash Sacred Landscape Initiative, the Limi Valley of north-western Nepal is currently under consideration for the establishment of one such area. This paper warns about an understanding of conservation as a segregation of humans and nature, which is at odds with local perceptions of landscape as relational. Through the perspective of pastoral practices in the Limi Valley, I show how the Limey – the people of this Valley – conceive of humans as enmeshed within a network of interacting beings under the guiding principles of ecological ethics of care. This conception is framed by religion (a syncretic mixture of Mahayana Buddhism, Bön religion and Animism), as well as by skills of ecological and spiritual embeddedness which are central to pastoral practice. I also warn against the fallacy of considering locals’ relationship to the environment, informed by Buddhism, as intrinsically more prone to eco-friendly practices. I show how this relationship is dynamic and evolving, and influenced by the economic and political context of the last thirty years. This has led to the progressive obsolescence of pastoralism as the main means of livelihood, with consequences for the local inhabitants’ relationship to landscape and to other-than-human species.

Assessment of traditional techniques used by communities in Indian part of Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) for minimizing human-wildlife conflict

Communities living in Kailash Sacred Landscape India are often receiving damage from wildlife in the form of property damage, crop loss, and livestock depredation. This study was conducted to assess the use and effectiveness of traditional practices for minimizing human-wildlife conflict (HWC) by communities in KSL India. The fieldwork was carried out in four forest ranges in the Indian part of KSL where 584 respondents participated in interviews. The finding indicates that there are 16 types of traditional methods used by the KSL community in the area including guarding, fencing, night vigilance, scarecrow, and making noise. Around 61% of the respondents in KSL-India identified vigilance as an effective measure to mitigate HWC, while 14% of the people interviewed consider that vigilance by humans is not fully effective. A total of 36% of the respondents reported that the use of a guardian dog an effective measure to mitigate HWC while 47% of the respondents claimed that the use of a guardian dog is not fully effective. According to the respondents, only 20% said that fencing is effective to mitigate HWC while 10% disagreed, 15% neither agreed nor disagreed, 12% agreed while 42% strongly disagreed. Around 34% of the respondents agreed that the use of multiple deterrents is effective in mitigating HWC while 51% strongly disagreed, 0% agreed and 6% disagreed. The study underlines the importance of traditional practices used in KSL-India in mitigating human-wildlife conflict. It also found that traditional knowledge is being lost due to out-migration, reduced social cohesion and erosion of interest in traditional techniques.

Challenges and opportunities under COVID-19 on rural populace in Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL)-India

More than just a health crisis, COVID-19 pandemic has stressed across social, economical and emotional dimensions of human well being and health. The sudden enforcement although willful and honest, perpetuated a sense of insecurity and uncertainty as a result of livelihood loss, especially for the people employed in unorganized and private sectors across different urban centers of the country. The unexpected scenario not only caused widespread joblessness but also created varied conditions of psychological stresses foreseeing the less likelihood of returning of pre-COVID conditions. As an outcome of the pandemic, the involuntarily return of youth was seen as a boon for reversing the undesirable and unprecedented trends impacting the traditional rural dynamics. Present study is an attempt to highlights impacts, challenges and opportunities under and after COVID-19 on rural populace of Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) amid the sudden halt of remittances and jobless aspiring youth. A systematic approach was followed, where 16 villages in eight Blocks of KSL were assessed and migrants (n=815) were interviewed for compiling the information. Results revealed that COVID-19 has impacted (both positively and negatively) various sectors such as agriculture, tourism, overall family income, etc., as perceived by the respondents. Sectors like restaurants/shops, tourism, and agriculture emerged as potential cash generating avenues, with 30 %, 21 %, and 20 % respondent's perception, respectively. It is also revealed that in the absence of immediate alternatives, and policy intervention, villagers engaged themselves in the time tested traditional sectors of livelihoods or created their own niche by integrating traditional wisdom and acquired skills.

Trade potentiality of oils extracted from Prunus davidiana (wild apricot), Sapindus mukorossi (soapnut) and Zanthoxylum armatum (Nepalese pepper) in Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal

Currently, 80–90% of Nepalese medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) are exported in crude form to more than 50 countries worldwide. The prospects of exporting processed MAPs have been discussed but the progress is slow. This paper analyses the trade and prospects of secondary processing of two vegetables oils, Prunus davidiana and Sapindus mukorossi, and an essential oil of Zanthoxylum armatum from Baitadi, Bajhang, Darchula and Humla Districts of the Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) in Nepal. A wide range of literature was referred and telephone interviews were conducted with traders and exporters to collect information on the trade value, volume and prospects of these three species. Prunus davidiana is a non-native species found in Humla District. Prunus davidiana oil is exported along with Chuli (Prunus armeniaca) oil with market price of USD 26/kg and an estimated export volume ranging around two tons in 2020 from Nepal. Sapindus mukorossi is cultivated and abundantly found in Baitadi, Darchula and Bajhang Districts. Crude S. mukorossi is one of the highly exported MAPs of Nepal (1,300–2,550 tons per annum) and from KSL Nepal (estimated 500 tons per annum), but the domestic trade and export of its oil is not yet commenced in the country. Zanthoxylum armatum is a widely cultivated native medicinal plant of Nepal with estimated annual export volume (crude) of 1,400–1,700 tons, KSL area in Nepal contributing 4–16 tons per annum. Zanthoxylum oil extracted from its fruits is exported to India and European countries. The market price of Zanthoxylum oil ranges between USD 110–130/kg, and the export volume ranged between 3.5–7.7 tons. There are no records of processing of Zanthoxylum oil in KSL Nepal. The prospects of P. davidiana oil in cosmetics and S. mukorossi oil in biofuel exists but few issues need to be addressed such as inclusion of P. davidiana in the Government of Nepal's royalty list to legalize the trade of its oil. Further research on yield and trade potential, and developing efficient processing technology are also needed to build on the trade potential of these three oils.

Understanding the visual image of Kailash Sacred Landscape through geo-tagged landscape photos mapping

Kailash is one of the most important sacred landscape in Trans-Himalayan region and worshiped by multiple nations and religions. The visual construction of this sacred landscape is a complex process of cultural practice, and even in the era of Internet and big data, the burgeoning photo sharing websites, social media have further influenced people's gaze and imagination of Kailash. The research paper focuses on people's visual perception of Kailash Sacred Landscape and proposed a hypothesis that the images of Kailash become a product of viewer's selection of iconic symbols from landscape and then be reconstructed through visual media. The research mainly includes two parts. The first part focuses on the GIS spatial analysis of the complex visual landscape of Kailash. Viewshed analysis reveals the visual prominence of Kailash in the whole region, and also the change in people's visual perception of this mountain during the kora trek. The second part focuses on of the geo-tagged photos collected form social media. Visual content analysis based on computer vision is adopted to recognize items from collected photos. Most visual elements can be integrated into a higher-level set of 8 visual elements. According to the ratio of each element, hierarchical clustering is adopted to describe the similarity between each photo. The dendrogram of clustering result shows all the photos can be generally divided into 9 groups, which reflects different paradigms of people's visual expression of Kailash. In conclusion, this research reveals how Kailash is represented through filtered images in a web-based context. Also, it explores and extends the applications of GIS and AI technology in cultural landscape research.

Population levels and productivity of the Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis) in Baitadi District, Nepal

The Himalayan Griffon (Gyps himalayensis), is a globally near threatened vulture species that nests in the cliffs of mid hills and Himalayas of Nepal. We studied the Himnalayan Griffon breeding population and productivity on its prominent nesting sites at Khodpe in Baitatdi district, Nepal from 2010 to 2020. In 2012, this district was declared free of veterinary diclofenac—a drug that caused precipitous population declines in Gyps vultures across south Asia during the late 1990s and early 2000s. We therefore expected an increase in the number of occupied nests during our study. However, the growth rates for the number of occupied nests, fledglings, and young fledged per nest during our study were negative with confidence limits overlapping zero. It is possible the population is limited by the availability of nest sites, although we also cannot discount carcass poisoning, electrocution, persecution, and forest fire as limiting factors. This colony is one of the few remaining known breeding sites within the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Nepal. We therefore recommend continued and enhanced monitoring of this species as well as continuation of conservation efforts.

Influence of season and habitat on birds in a mid-altitudinal village ecosystem of Kailash Sacred Landscape-India

The Himalayan biodiversity hotspot with high species diversity, is lesser-known in terms of the seasonal variations within the bird community across different land uses especially in and around human modified land use areas. As seasonal migration of birds impacts the mid altitudinal range more, we monitored four seasons in different habitats of a village ecosystem of the Indian part of Kailash Sacred Landscape lying in the mid-altitudinal range. A total of 408 point counts were conducted, and 2335 individuals of 95 species were recorded belonging to 32 families. Among them, 48 are Himalayan endemics, 15 are Oak forest specialists, and 30 are migratory (altitudinal/local and long-range). We recorded maximum bird diversity in the agricultural land and least in the Chir pine forest. The Spring season was the most species-rich and diverse among all four seasons in this village ecosystem and most of its adjoining habitats. The present study aims to create a baseline on the influence of seasonal change on the avian structure across habitat types in a mid-altitudinal village ecosystem.

Wood for thought? Untold consequences of the Himalayan gold collection in the Central Himalaya

Every year, in the Central Himalaya, the caterpillar fungus collectors collect fuelwood from the alpine shrublands to meet their energy needs for cooking and heating. The fuelwood collection continues unabated, and its long-term impact on the alpine ecology is still less understood. We conducted a questionnaire survey and fuelwood measurements in the summer of 2019 at the 'open-access' and 'closed-access' collection sites of caterpillar fungus in the Kailash Sacred Landscape of Nepal in the Central Himalaya. The ‘open access collection site’ referred to the site being accessible to any Nepali citizen from anywhere upon the payment of the collection fee. The ‘closed collection site’ referred to the site being accessible only to members of a particular community. The study objectives were to estimate fuelwood consumption by fungus harvesters and ascertain if fungus collection time and the number of people in a tent have an influence over fuelwood consumption in two sites. We randomly selected thirty harvesters in each fungus collection site for the study. The study results were supplemented by the satellite images to understand decadal changes in shrub cover at closed and open access collection sites. The open-access site had a more significant number of people in a tent, a longer length of stay, and a greater fuelwood consumption. The duration of stay at the open-access site far exceeded the recommended period of one month for harvesting the caterpillar fungus. On the contrary, the length of stay at the closed collection site was one month. The open-access site had a daily consumption of six kilogram fuelwood, and the closed site consumed four and a half kilograms of fuelwood daily. The decadal decline in shrub cover was higher in the open-access site. The study suggests that the current practices of fuelwood removal may be unsustainable and likely to deplete the alpine shrublands, and ultimately harm the caterpillar fungus, especially at the open-access collection sites. There is an urgency to replace the current fuelwood resource use practiced by collectors with more sustainable energy systems. Moreover, it is imperative to address this issue holistically through stringent policies that regulate the number of people and days spent at collection sites.

Against the Tide: The Future of Transhumant Herders in the Kailash Sacred Landscape of Nepal

Transhumant pastoralism, with its cultural, ecological, and socioeconomic significance, is an important livelihood strategy for mountain communities. Despite its importance, transhumant pastoralism is declining in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region. This study examines the drivers of change experienced by transhumant herders in Bajhang, western Nepal, in order to understand future implications for transhumant pastoralism in the region. Here, animals are raised to transport goods to remote villages and to earn supplemental income through the sale of milk, meat, and livestock. The study found that herders are experiencing multiple drivers of changes—including socioeconomic, political, institutional, ecological, and climatic—which have both positive and negative implications for their livelihoods. Herders have responded to these changes by altering their transhumance routes and by reducing the variety and numbers of animals raised. The increasing market demand for meat from freely grazed animals and limited road access are current factors contributing to the perpetuation of transhumant herding in Bajhang. Meanwhile, the institutional mechanisms provisioned in the National Rangeland Policy are neither functional in the study area nor able to resolve issues of the herders. The study recommends developing an incentive-based mechanism involving herders and other stakeholders to address the challenges faced by herders.

Distribution and Abundance of Raptors in Kailash Sacred Landscape, Western Himalaya, India

Distribution and Abundance of Raptors in Kailash Sacred Landscape, Western Himalaya, India

Ageratina adenophora and Lantana camara in Kailash Sacred Landscape, India: Current distribution and future climatic scenarios through modeling.

The Himalayan region is one of the global biodiversity hotspots. However, its biodiversity and ecosystems are threatened due to abiotic and biotic drivers. One of the major biotic threats to biodiversity in this region is the rapid spread of Invasive Alien Species (IAS). Natural forests and grasslands are increasingly getting infested by IAS affecting regeneration of native species and decline in availability of bio-resources. Assessing the current status of IAS and prediction of their future spread would be vital for evolving specific species management interventions. Keeping this in view, we conducted an in-depth study on two IASs, viz., Ageratina adenophora and Lantana camara in the Indian part of Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL), Western Himalaya. Intensive field surveys were conducted to collect the presence of A. adenophora (n = 567) and L. camara (n = 120) along an altitudinal gradient between 300 and 3000 m a.s.l. We performed Principal Component Analysis to nullify the multi-colinearity effects of the environmental predictors following MaxEnt species distribution model in the current and future climatic scenarios for both the species. All current and future model precision (i.e., Area Under the Curve; AUC) for both species was higher than 0.81. It is predicted that under the current rate of climate change and higher emission (i.e., RCP 8.5 pathway), A. adenophora will spread 45.3% more than its current distribution and is likely to reach up to 3029 m a.s.l., whereas, L. camara will spread 29.8% more than its current distribution range and likely to reach up to 3018 m a.s.l. Our results will help in future conservation planning and participatory management of forests and grasslands in the Kailash Sacred Landscape–India.

Integrated landscape approaches to building resilience and multifunctionality in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, China

Climate warming-induced rangeland degradation in arid and semiarid steppe imposes substantial threats to the livelihoods of people. But this dilemma can be solved by combining all sectors of agriculture, animal husbandry and tourism through their complementarity, i.e. by adopting integrated landscape ecosystem-based approaches. A number of experiences and lessons have been achieved in a specific sector for its successful development, but not in the multiple social, economic, and ecological systems. In this study, we uses the perspective of integrated ecosystem management to strengthen crop-livestock integration and innovative livelihoods, and propose a multifunctional Kailash Landscape to activate the inter-linkage among agriculture, animal husbandry, and heritage pilgrimage/tourism in order to achieve multifunction of the socio-ecological system. A case study of Kailash Sacred Landscape Conservation and Development Initiative in China was quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed by land use and land cover change and its consequence on multiple ecosystem services. Integrated landscape management was found to be effective in building resilience of socio-ecosystems by reducing the vulnerability of traditional agriculture in terms of improving crop production and animal husbandry. A multifunctional landscape is expected to be integrated and build a resilient sector complementarity including farming, pastorism, environmental and socioeconomic function. The analyses show that integrated landscape approaches provide an effective perspective for sustainable socio-economic development in this sacred landscape. The findings highlight the importance of landscape-scale ecosystem-based adaptation to environment change.

An Offering of Grain: The Agricultural and Spiritual Cycle of a Food System in the Kailash Sacred Landscape, Darchula, Far Western Nepal

Foodscapes are commonly embedded in spiritual landscapes, making the spiritual dimension of local and indigenous food systems an important element of food sovereignty. However, this dimension is often overlooked in food systems research and policy making. Based on ethnobiological fieldwork conducted in the Kailash Sacred Landscape of far western Nepal, we show how religious festivals and rituals reenact the covenant between people and the land through the numinous intercession of Hindu gods and landscape deities. To demonstrate this, we present the local calendar of the agricultural and ritual year based on data collected through household surveys and participation in festivals and agricultural activities. The complex fabric of the local agri-food system is revealed as articulated in the warp and weft of interwoven agricultural and spiritual cycles. These cycles contribute to respectful and sustainable landscape management practices by shaping the relationship people have with the land. In the annual women's festival of Gaura, the fertility and well-being of people and land is affirmed through the offering of locally produced pulses and grains. Furthermore, local gastronomic identity is enriched by the incentive to cultivate heirloom varieties of crops that are prescribed in rituals performed during Gaura and other major festivals. We conclude that spiritual practices should be considered key elements of biocultural diversity, and recommend that they receive more attention in the implementation of sustainable development that aims to embody the principles of food sovereignty.

Qualifying Land Use and Land Cover Dynamics and Their Impacts on Ecosystem Service in Central Himalaya Transboundary Landscape Based on Google Earth Engine

Land use and land cover (LULC) changes are regarded as one of the key drivers of ecosystem services degradation, especially in mountain regions where they may provide various ecosystem services to local livelihoods and surrounding areas. Additionally, ecosystems and habitats extend across political boundaries, causing more difficulties for ecosystem conservation. LULC in the Kailash Sacred Landscape (KSL) has undergone obvious changes over the past four decades; however, the spatiotemporal changes of the LULC across the whole of the KSL are still unclear, as well as the effects of LULC changes on ecosystem service values (ESVs). Thus, in this study we analyzed LULC changes across the whole of the KSL between 2000 and 2015 using Google Earth Engine (GEE) and quantified their impacts on ESVs. The greatest loss in LULC was found in forest cover, which decreased from 5443.20 km2 in 2000 to 5003.37 km2 in 2015 and which mainly occurred in KSL-Nepal. Meanwhile, the largest growth was observed in grassland (increased by 548.46 km2), followed by cropland (increased by 346.90 km2), both of which mainly occurred in KSL-Nepal. Further analysis showed that the expansions of cropland were the major drivers of the forest cover change in the KSL. Furthermore, the conversion of cropland to shrub land indicated that farmland abandonment existed in the KSL during the study period. The observed forest degradation directly influenced the ESV changes in the KSL. The total ESVs in the KSL decreased from 36.53 × 108 USD y−1 in 2000 to 35.35 × 108 USD y−1 in 2015. Meanwhile, the ESVs of the forestry areas decreased by 1.34 × 108 USD y−1. This shows that the decrease of ESVs in forestry was the primary cause to the loss of total ESVs and also of the high elasticity. Our findings show that even small changes to the LULC, especially in forestry areas, are noteworthy as they could induce a strong ESV response.