Kafue National Park Research Articles

Boots on the ground: in defense of low-tech, inexpensive, and robust survey methods for Africa’s under-funded protected areas

Protected area managers need reliable information to detect spatial and temporal trends of the species they intend to protect. This information is crucial for population monitoring, understanding ecological processes, and evaluating the effectiveness of management and conservation policies. In under-funded protected areas, managers often prioritize ungulates and carnivores for monitoring given their socio-economic value and sensitivity to human disturbance. Aircraft-based surveys are typically utilized for monitoring ungulates because they can cover large areas regardless of the terrain, but such work is expensive and subject to bias. Recently, unmanned aerial vehicles have shown great promise for ungulate monitoring, but these technologies are not yet widely available and are subject to many of the same analytical challenges associated with traditional aircraft-based surveys. Here, we explore use of inexpensive and robust distance sampling methods in Kafue National Park (KNP) (22,400 km2), carried out by government-employed game scouts. Ground-based surveys spanning 101, 5-km transects resulted in 369 ungulate group detections from 20 species. Using generalized linear models and distance sampling, we determined the environmental and anthropogenic variables influencing ungulate species richness, density, and distribution. Species richness was positively associated with permanent water and percent cover of closed woodland vegetation. Distance to permanent water had the strongest overall effect on ungulate densities, but the magnitude and direction of this effect varied by species. This ground-based approach provided a more cost-effective, unbiased, and repeatable method than aerial surveys in KNP, and could be widely implemented by local personnel across under-funded protected areas in Africa.

Dietary niche separation of rodents and shrews in an African savanna

AbstractWhile niche separation and relationships with environmental conditions of large mammals of the African savanna have been studied intensively, less conspicuous components have not received similar attention. This is the case of Kafue National Park (KNP), Zambia, where mechanisms supporting coexistence among rodent and shrew species remain unclear, much less the influence of fire on their dietary resource use. Here, we use stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes to assess dietary resource use and partitioning among rodents and shrews found in three vegetation formations of KNP. According to the nitrogen isotope signatures, rodents are one to two trophic levels above primary production, save for Mus triton that is above by two to three. Shrews are two trophic levels above primary production. Among shrews, factors allowing coexistence of similar sized species could not be resolved. Rodent species of the same assemblage either differ in body mass by a factor of two (following Hutchinson's rule) or similar sized species occupy different trophic levels or dietary guilds based on their isotopic nitrogen or carbon signatures. At sites with frequent fires, rodents have broader dietary niches than at sites with low fire frequencies. This could either indicate relaxed competition under high fire frequencies as rodent populations do not reach the carrying capacity of the habitat, or it could reflect reduced competition due to lower species numbers under high versus low fire recurrence regimes. The results indicate competition as an important component structuring rodent communities in Zambian savannas, thus suggesting limited resources.

Road kills of wild vertebrates in Kafue National Park, Zambia, between January 2008 and December 2012

Road kills of wild vertebrates in Kafue National Park, Zambia, between January 2008 and December 2012

Quantitative Analysis of Ngoma Forest in Kafue National Park, Zambia

Ngoma Forest is one of the eleven major vegetation types in Kafue National Park. Between 1997 and 2002, a study was undertaken to quantify the vegetation and landscape of Ngoma Forest. The key vegetation measurement variables taken from fourteen 20m X 20m sampling plots were: height, diameter at breast height (DBH) and crown size. In addition to vegetation measurements, data on terrain, soil, water and fire occurrence were recorded from each sampling plot. Observations regarding the presence of faunal species were done based on actual sightings and signs such as droppings, nests, foot prints, debarking of trees, feathers, hairs and sounds. Results of the study indicates that Ngoma Forest terrain is almost flat to very flat with generally straight slope of 0 to 3% and altitude ranging from 1,050m to 1,120m above sea level. The Forest occurs on strong acidic and well-drained sandy-clay and sandy-loam with pH range of 4.4 to 5.3. Baphia massaiensis, Friesodielsia obovata, Baikiaea plurijuga, Pterocarpus lucens, Combretum celastroides C. mossambicense , and C. elaeagnoides contribute more than 80% to the physical structure. The tree layer consists of tall trees in the height range of 18 to 22m and is dominated by Baikiaea plurijuga and Pterocarpus lucens with isolated stands of Entandrophragma caudatum, Ficus sur, Burkea africana and Erythrophleum africanum . The second layer consists of trees above 6m but less than 18m and is characterized by Philenoptera violacea, Pterocarpus rotundifolius, Xeroderis stuhlmannii, Dalbergiella nyasae, Strychnos potatorum and S. pungens . The third layer consist of small trees and shrubs rarely reaching the height of 6m and is characterized by Croton megalobotrys, Friesodielsia obovata, Combretum elaeagnoides, C. mossambicense, C. celastroides, Duranta erecta, Citropsis daweana, Grewia flavescens, Dalbergia martinii, Pteleopsis anisoptera and P. myrtifolia . The species diversity of Ngoma Forest is relatively low but comparatively higher than Mopane, Combretacea and Acacia woodlands. The tree / shrub density calculations indicated 1,475 stems per hectare while the mean biomass calculations were 122.6 tons per hectare and 1.5 tons per hectare for trees and shrubs respectively. The extent of Ngoma Forest in 1985 was 34km 2 but the Forest had shrunk to about 18km 2 by 2002. The Forest is likely to shrink further while the scrubland around the Forest is going to expand. This habitat shift is bound to adversely affect the habitat range of a number of ungulates, carnivores, primates, rodents and birds. Some management interventions have been suggested in order to protect this unique habitat.

Differential Effects of Fire on Small Mammal Communities in the Busanga Flood Plain, Zambia

We assessed effects of vegetation and fire on small mammals in open vegetation formations of the Busanga Flood Plain (Kafue National Park, Zambia) in areas of low and high fire recurrence. The impa...

Visitor experience in Kafue National Park, Zambia

ABSTRACTResearch is limited with respect to park-based visitor experience and satisfaction in the southern Africa region, especially in Zambia. In this study, the relationships of service quality, value, satisfaction, and future intention to revisit Kafue National Park were explored. A conceptual model was formulated and empirically tested. Data were collected from various sites with a useable sample of 336 responses. Analysis was conducted via a structural equation model to test four hypotheses. Service quality was divided into three dimensions. Staff and information were positively related to value, which in turn indirectly improved satisfaction and future intention. Accessibility to wildlife was found to be the most significant antecedent to value. Physical facilities did not significantly contribute to the strength of any factors in the model. The findings are useful for park managers to understand visitor needs and accordingly facilitate services that will optimise experience to ensure repeat visitation.

Population characteristics and coexistence of puku (Kobus vardonii) and impala (Aepyceros melampus) in and around Kafue National Park, Zambia

Sympatric occurrence of puku (Kobus vardonii) and impala (Aepyceros melampus) characterises large parts of the protected areas in Zambia. The present study assessed traits of the populations as well as spatial and dietary overlap of both antelopes in Kafue National Park and adjacent Game Management Areas in western Zambia. Data were collected via distance sampling along line transects (population and distribution) and via microhistological analyses of dung (diet). Hunting activities might result in fewer males in both antelopes in the Game-Management areas. During the cool dry season there was considerable spatial overlap between puku and impala. However, puku are more abundant in grassland areas, while impala reach highest population densities in intermediate habitats. The diet of puku was characterised by high amounts of grasses during both the cool dry season and the late rainy season. Impala shifted from browsing during the cool dry season to a more grazing diet during the rainy season. This study found niche partitioning via habitat and diet as a key to understand the coexistence of these antelopes and improves our knowledge of Zambian Wildlife.

Perceptions and attitudes of local communities towards Kafue National Park, Zambia

Perceptions and attitudes of local communities towards Kafue National Park, Zambia

To track or to call: comparing methods for estimating population abundance of African lions Panthera leo in Kafue National Park

The wide-ranging behaviour of large carnivores and low densities at which they occur make direct population surveys of these species expensive and time consuming, and consequently indirect methods are widely used. We compared the accuracy, precision and cost of two methods commonly used to survey African lions, namely call-up surveys and track-count surveys. Surveys were performed in the 11,000 km2 northern sector of Zambia’s Kafue National Park (Kafue), an area for which no previous empirical lion population data are available. We estimate lion abundance of 200 individuals over 1 year of age in northern Kafue, at a density of 1.83 lions 100 km−2. We used GPS collars and regular observations of lions to establish a reference population in an Intensive Study Site for comparison with survey results. Both survey methods produced accurate results, though precision was higher for call-up surveys, despite lower costs. Stratification of the study area did not improve the survey estimates. We recommend call-up surveys as the most appropriate method for surveying lions in Kafue and similar large protected areas, and suggest standardisation of survey equipment and protocols.

A New Species ofPilophoneusLondt, 1988 from Zambia (Asilidae: Laphriinae)

Pilophoneus analogos sp. n. is described from Zambia (Kafue National Park) and compared to the only other known species, P. krugeri (Oldroyd, 1974), from South Africa. A key is provided for the separation of these species while the distribution of the genus is briefly discussed.

‘There's an app for that’: a new program for the collection of behavioural field data

Researchers have long sought an inexpensive, reliable, flexible and efficient method to collect behavioural data in the field. Techniques such as free-form notebooks, pre-prepared data sheets and audio/video recordings are inexpensive and require little training but are inefficient, requiring almost as much time to encode the data as to collect it. Conversely, current digital solutions remove the need for data entry after collection, but require users either to purchase commercial software and hardware, or to have the skills and time to design a software solution. This paper introduces a freely available application for the Android operating system, Prim8 Mobile, which can be used for any captive or wild animal study that uses a behavioural sampling protocol combining continuous focal follow, instantaneous scan, all-occurrence and/or ad libitum data. It can also be used to catalogue biological samples, such as animal tissues and faecal or plant matter. This application has been validated for consistency and stability on the Motorola A855 under both controlled and field conditions, including a 12-month field study of baboons in the southern region of the Kafue National Park, Zambia. Advantages of the application include the ability to import and alter protocols on the device, to backup and export the data without internet availability and to use the exported data directly in spreadsheet or statistical analysis software.

Male-Driven Grooming Bouts in Mixed-Sex Dyads of Kinda Baboons (Papio kindae)

The behavior of the Central African Kinda baboon (Papio kindae) is not well documented. Having previously noted distinctive grooming behavior in several Kinda baboon populations, we investigated the topic more systematically in the Kafue National Park, Zambia. We recorded the duration and details of male-female dyadic interactions (approaches, withdrawals and time spent grooming) in the early morning and late afternoon. Such interactions were more often initiated by the male and terminated by the female partner. The male groomed the female more often, and longer, than she groomed him, regardless of the female's reproductive state or the presence of an infant. The bias towards male grooming was stronger in morning than evening interactions. These behaviors, whose function is not immediately obvious, and which are unlike those previously reported in baboons, further exemplify the distinctiveness of the taxon.

On tracks: A spoor-based occupancy survey of lion Panthera leo distribution in Kafue National Park, Zambia

The African lion has lost more than 75% of its historic range and numbers of wild lions continue to decline. Protected areas are critical to the species’ future, yet its conservation status in many of these presumed sanctuaries remains unknown. Zambia is one of nine countries estimated to hold over 1000 wild lions, and Kafue, its largest National Park, is a key stronghold for the species. Understanding lion distribution and threats facing the species in the park are of particular relevance given the recent ban on lion hunting in Zambia and the uncertainty over this industry’s future in the country. We used a single-season occupancy model based on detection of lion tracks to estimate proportion of area used and derive spatially explicit probability of lion use for northern Kafue, an area for which no previous empirical lion data exist. Our top-ranking model predicted that lions use 72.1% of the study area, 23.3% greater than the naïve estimate. Contrary to our expectations, and possibly due to apparent ubiquity of illegal bushmeat hunting in the park, neither prey biomass nor anthropogenic edge effects emerged as important drivers of lion distribution, with habitat class instead the best predictor. Our findings provide the management authority with survey methodology as well as focal areas for further lion research in the Kafue system. More broadly, we demonstrate the utility of track-based occupancy models in establishing the distribution of large carnivores within previously unsurveyed African protected areas.

Baobab tales

Baobab tales

Foot-and-mouth disease control in Zambia: A review of the current situation

Zambia has been experiencing low livestock productivity as well as trade restrictions owing to the occurrence of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) and contagious bovine pleura pneumonia (CBPP). Foot-and-mouth disease was first recorded in Zambia in 1933 in the Western Province and since then the country has experienced repeated outbreaks. Bearing in mind the pressure that may be existing on the many risk factors for FMD including climate change, there is need to review our knowledge on FMD control. We present the spatial distribution of the FMD outbreaks that have been recorded in Zambia in the last twenty years, and the effect of the vaccinations and movement control that have been applied. We propose further strain characterisation of previous FMD outbreaks, including full sequence of VP1 gene and the 5’UTR site. The data will be geo-coded and populated with risk factor attributes. We also present preliminary findings of the buffalo and cattle probang sampling that was conducted in Lochnivar and Kafue National Park. We further probang sampled 25 buffalo at each interface area in Sioma Ngwezi, Lukusuzi and Lower Zambezi national parks. Villages in close proximity to the buffalo populations as well as those not in close proximity will be multistage cluster sampled for comparison. The data will be geo-coded and populated with risk factor and foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) characterisation attributes. Data collected using a pre-tested structured questionnaire will be geo-coded and populated with identified risk factors and stored in a database and will be spatially modelled to determine their effect on FMD occurrence and control measures. New outbreaks of FMD that may occur will be investigated to find out if there are new strains involved, species affected and predisposing risk factors.The authors conclude that impacts of FMD on livelihoods if appropriate control measures are not put in place are far more devastating especially at community level. Presented with the current poverty levels failure to institute result oriented control measures will exacerbate the already life-threatening situation.

Field foot patrol effectiveness in Kafue National Park, Zambia

Field foot patrols effectiveness for wildlife protection in a large vegetal mosaic Kafue National Park (22,400 km2) was assessed for two successive periods of different duration. The relationship between patrol days spent in the field by patrol teams and resultant outcomes was determined. Using trained patrol scout teams, field data was recorded on prescribed patrol forms. Prosecution data was populated into database and analysed for their spatial coverage. Study findings showed that 2 to 8 day foot patrols were more effective than protracted patrols. By changing field patrol duration the Wildlife Agency significantly reduced events of “serious and minor offences” and saved at least 46.67% of its conservation funds for foot patrols. Most of the offenders (69.13%) of environmental crimes originated from adjacent areas to the Park. It was proposed that wildlife managers explore and implement effective pragmatic foot patrols on site specific basis. In addition, it was postulated that community based conservation programmes in peripherals of Kafue National Park, if strengthened, could greatly contribute to biodiversity conservation. Future studies would be required to further investigate drivers of environmental crimes, elucidating attitudes of poachers and reasons for their involvement in illegal wildlife trade vis-a-vis local demands of natural products. Key words: Environmental crimes, effectiveness, community based conservation, Kafue National Park, Zambia.

Why did they not visit? Examining structural constraints to visit Kafue National Park, Zambia

Wildlife and natural amenities are major attractions at Kafue National Park (KNP) in Zambia. Although there has been an increase in visitation over the past few years, the current volume is low compared with its size and slightly skewed towards domestic visitors. The objective of this study was to examine what prevents visitation to KNP. Based on the adaptation of the leisure constraints model, this study examined structural constraints between international and domestic visitors in Zambia. On-site intercept surveys were conducted at two international airports and accommodations in various regions of the country. International visitors were more likely to perceive personal structural constraints (i.e. fear of personal safety, not enough time, and the lack of interest with travel companion or group) and environmental structural constraints (i.e. not enough quality lodges and camps, lack of available information about the park and unsuitable weather conditions). Domestic visitors were more likely to perceive financial cost and poor road conditions. Results of site-specific structural constraints provide planning and marketing implications which can be utilised by the Zambian Wildlife Authority and Tourism Board.

Changes in Temporal and Spatial Pattern of Road Kills Along the Lusaka-Mongu (M9) Highway, Kafue National Park, Zambia

This study examined the extent to which traffic volume and road kills changed after rehabilitation of the Lusaka–Mongu highway (M9), which traverses the Kafue National Park. It also assessed the impact of the road kills on the wildlife populations in the park. The study revealed that traffic volume increased by 45% after rehabilitation of the M9 road. Consequently, sighting rates of road kills increased by >50%. The majority of the collisions occurred in the late wet season (January–March). These months coincide with dense vegetation cover and rutting season of impala (Aepyceros melampus), the species that was killed most frequently. Reduced visibility because of dense vegetation cover, and pronounced animal activity during the rut inevitably enhanced chances of wildlife colliding with vehicles. With regard to impacts of the road kills on the wildlife populations, the majority (>86%) of the animals involved in the road accidents are the young and subadults. The collisions, therefore, are affecting the reproductive potential of the species affected. To mitigate against the wildlife–vehicle collisions, the study recommends various measures, such as slashing of verges at the appropriate time, use of speed cameras, and educational and public-awareness campaigns.

Comparative Intradermal Tuberculin Testing of Free-Ranging African Buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) Captured forEx SituConservation in the Kafue Basin Ecosystem in Zambia

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is endemic in African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) in some National Parks in Southern Africa, whilst no studies have been conducted on BTB on buffalo populations in Zambia. The increased demand for ecotourism and conservation of the African buffalo on private owned game ranches has prompted the Zambian Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) and private sector in Zambia to generate a herd of “BTB-free buffaloes” for ex situ conservation. In the present study, 86 African buffaloes from four different herds comprising a total of 530 animals were investigated for the presence of BTB for the purpose of generating “BTB free” buffalo for ex-situ conservation. Using the comparative intradermal tuberculin test (CIDT) the BTB status at both individual animal and herd level was estimated to be 0.0% by the CIDT technique. Compared to Avian reactors only, a prevalence of 5.8% was determined whilst for Bovine-only reactors a prevalence of 0.0% was determined. These results suggest the likelihood of buffalo herds in the Kafue National Park being free of BTB.

Kinda baboons (Papio kindae) and grayfoot chacma baboons (P. ursinus griseipes) hybridize in the Kafue river valley, Zambia

The ranges of small kinda (Papio kindae) and much larger grayfooted chacma (P. ursinus griseipes) baboons adjoin in the Kafue National Park, Zambia. In a visual survey of baboons at 48 sites in the Kafue River drainage we found that, contrary to previous reports, groups at the species interface near the town of Ngoma are phenotypically diverse and presumably formed by multigenerational hybridization. Mitochondrial and/or Y-chromosome genetic markers from fecal samples (N=164) collected at 29 sites support this conclusion. Groups with phenotypic signs of a history of hybridization also had taxon-specific mitochondria and Y-haplotypes from both parental species. Although the distribution of mitochondrial haplotypes largely mirrored that of external phenotypes, a significant proportion of male specimens from grayfoot as well as hybrid groups carried kinda Y-chromosomes, and kinda Y-chromosomes were involved in all observed cases of mitochondrial/Y-chromosome discordance. These observations are consistent with, though they do not prove, a population history in which the range of chacmas and the hybrid zone have advanced at the expense of the kinda range. They also suggest that, unexpectedly, kinda male×chacma female matings are much more common than the reciprocal cross in the ancestry of hybrids. We suggest that distinctive male kinda behavior and the "juvenile" appearance of kinda baboons of both sexes, perhaps combined with obstetric difficulties of a small kinda female carrying the large offspring of a chacma male, may account for this bias.