Judicial Punishment Research Articles

"To Get to the Center": Recovering the Marginalized Woman in John Dos Passos's Manhattan Transfer

"To Get to the Center"Recovering the Marginalized Woman in John Dos Passos's Manhattan Transfer Paul Petrovic (bio) The towering cityscape in John Dos Passos's Manhattan Transfer (1925) acts as an oppressive force that keeps citizens under continuous surveillance by the patriarchal authority of bourgeois capitalism. Although Jimmy Herf breaks from the dehumanizing control of New York City, most of the novel's female characters do not. Ellen Thatcher typifies the plight of these women in being a victim of a patriarchal surveillance that turns private suffering into a spectacle for public consumption. Controlling external forces are, of course, nothing new in naturalistic fiction, though, as Townsend Ludington argues, in Dos Passos's novels "not everyone is completely bound by an unrelenting determinism," Jimmy Herf being a prime example (39). In Claude-Edmonde Magny's reading, we identity with Herf because he rebels against and flees the forces that would bind him: "Jimmy is … the central character—the only character except for Ellen who is not peripheral, the only one in whose favor the author mobilizes our sympathy" (108). There is, however, another character who deserves our sympathy despite being peripheral—Anna Cohen. The daughter of Jewish immigrants, Anna earns her living variously as a taxi dancer, a lunch-counter waitress, a prostitute, and a seamstress. In all of these jobs, she is under the controlling surveillance of employers, mostly men, and even in her love affairs cannot escape patriarchal authority. In the novel's last chapter, she is badly burned in a fire in the dress shop where she works, an event that seems to signify her ultimate victimhood. Yet in the previous scenes in which she figures, Anna has revealed a growing resistance to the forces that would confine her, and even though she last appears only as an object of Ellen's meditation on the fire, that meditation prophesies the way horrific scarring may bring Anna economic power and free her from the male gaze. [End Page 152] Michel Foucault's Discipline and Punish offers a lens through which to understand Anna Cohen's relation to the world of Manhattan Transfer. In tracing the history of judicial punishment from the early reliance on public torture and execution through the reforms in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries to the current prison system, Foucault takes Jeremy Bentham's Panopticon (1787) as defining the modern "generalized model of functioning," or "way of defining power relations in terms of the everyday life of men" (205). Bentham's original Panopticon was a prison consisting of a central tower from which prisoners in a surrounding ring of cells could be continuously observed and studied. The genius of the design is that its power to discipline does not require an actual observer, only the visible presence of the tower in which the observer's presence cannot be verified: "Visible: the inmate will constantly have before his eyes the tall outline of the central tower from which he is spied upon. Unverifiable: the inmate must never know whether he is being looked at at any one moment; but he must be sure that he may always be so" (201). When this model was adopted by numerous other institutions and disciplines, the result was what Foucault terms the modern "panoptic society" (301) in which "surveillance" (217) is the primary "modality of power" (221). "Is it surprising," Foucault asks, "that prisons resemble factories, schools, barracks, hospitals, which all resemble prisons?" (228). The modern city is a sort of vast prison, a "carceral city" in which there is no central observer, only "a network of diverse elements—walls, space, institutions, rules, discourse" (308), all of which combine "to exercise a power of normalization" (308). Foucault's notion that "space" is an element in the power relations of the modern city finds support in the work of psychologist Steve Pile. "Space," Pile asserts, "is produced under the tyranny of these intersecting, aligned lines of Power: masculinity, the bourgeois family, and capitalism" (221). In Manhattan Transfer, who occupies what space is controlled by a masculine vision predicated on commerce and on the domination and segregation of the weak. Any movement away from this concept of the...

Electoral Accountability and Corruption: Evidence from the Audits of Local Governments

We show that political institutions affect corruption levels. We use audit reports in Brazil to construct new measures of political corruption in local governments and test whether electoral accountability affects the corruption practices of incumbent politicians. We find significantly less corruption in municipalities where mayors can get reelected. Mayors with reelection incentives misappropriate 27 percent fewer resources than mayors without reelection incentives. These effects are more pronounced among municipalities with less access to information and where the likelihood of judicial punishment is lower. Overall our findings suggest that electoral rules that enhance political accountability play a crucial role in constraining politician's corrupt behavior. (JEL D72, K42, O17)

On the identical obligations of the population in the chrysobulls issued for the St. George monastery near Skopje

The chrysobulls issued by the Bulgarian emperor Constantine Tich (1238), and by the Serbian king Milutin (1299) authenticated all the estates and privileges of the St. George monastery near Skopje. From these chrysobulls one learns how, during the XI, XII and XIII centuries, the monastery acquired diverse gifts from some ten Byzantine emperors, four Bulgarian emperors, and four Serbian kings or rulers. Both the Bulgarian and the Serbian documents mention a large number of matching expressions that indicated the obligations of the subjugated peasants (serfs), criminal offences and judicial penalties and one sees the same titles for the representatives of all local authorities. Greek and Slav words were used as special terms. It was attested a long time ago that the Greek expressions originated in Byzantium and that they were taken from the rich Byzantine terminology. All of this occurred when Skopje and its vicinity were under stable Byzantine rule in the course of the decades and centuries, and, more substantially, when it was an integral part of the large Byzantine thema of Bulgaria. The case is different where Slav terms are concerned. They originated within the borders of the Bulgarian or the Serbian state, or they may have come into being as the Slav translation of some Greek expressions. The presence of Greek and Slav terms in the Bulgarian and the Serbian documents did not escape the notice of scholars and they have succeeded in accurately explaining most of them. Still, there are no adequate interpretations for some terms, and the inaccurate explanations given for a number of expressions have nonetheless become accepted in professional literature. This paper devotes particular attention, concerning the aforesaid problem circle, to the appearance of the word desetak (tithe) both in the district of Skopje and in the Serbian mother territories, then, to the specific meaning of the term carina (customs duty) to the appearance of mostnina or the toll for transit across bridges, the mistaken explanation of the term udava, as well as the differences between priselica and preselica. Researchers established long ago that peasants in Byzantium paid tithes in wheat, wine, sheep, pigs and honey, either in kind or in coin. This paper explains that tithes in honey or in beehives, during the XII century, were also paid by peasants in the Serbian mother territories that were never under direct Byzantine rule nor did they ever constitute a part of any Byzantine thema. The same applies to the payment of mostnina in Polimlje (the Lim River Basin), also in the XII century, which can be explained by the Byzantine influence that penetrated in diverse ways into the Serbian mother territories. The paper sheds light on the special meaning of the term carina, as well as its widespread use. At issue was a land that consisted of fields, vineyards and orchards that were cultivated by subjugated peasants, on behalf of the ruler, nobility or boyars. These kinds of carina existed in the district of Skopje, and in the territory of Hum Konavle, in the district of Kotor, and along the Coast. The phenomenon of carina in these regions can be explained by the fact that they were part of the Byzantine themata of Bulgaria and Dalmatia. As for the manner of punishment known under the term udava, it was for a long time believed to be 'the arbitrary imprisonment because of a debt', that is 'the arbitrary court'. This misinterpretation has become deeply rooted in professional literature despite the fact that four decades ago, it was proved that the word udava implied punishment in summary court procedure, without trial or the presentation of evidence. For certain criminal offences, there were pre-determined penalties that were pronounced by the authorities of those times. This paper concludes with the explanation that the term priselica meant compensation for damage caused by bandits or thieves, and that priselica was not the same as preselica. The latter expression meant the temporary sojourn of a nobleman and his suite in a district that had been placed in his charge or 'possession'. The nobleman, his suite and their horses, to all intents and purposes, enjoyed the right to maintenance, which was an additional burden for the population of a certain district.

Decorum or Deterrence?

ABSTRACTCapital punishment – specifically public execution – is here investigated not simply as a judicial punishment, but as a lens through which to view the civil and socio-political development of Malawi from the colonial to early independence eras. Public executions were an exceptional measure, employed at times of marked social and political unrest, being ordered by the colonial government in response to the Chilembwe Uprising in 1915 and by Prime Minister Banda in 1965 in the aftermath of the Cabinet crisis and Chipembere Uprising. This article looks at the continuities and changes in the practice and signification of these judicial killings.

Hacking into the Minds of Hackers

ABSTRACT This study presents results of a survey of self-proclaimed computer hackers about their perceptions in regards to illegal hacking. Results show that hackers continue to engage in illegal hacking activities despite the perception of severe judicial punishment. A closer look shows that hackers perceive a high utility value from hacking, little informal sanctions, and a low likelihood of punishment. These perceptions coupled with a high level of moral disengagement partially explain the hacker's illegal behavior.

Workplace Violence Among Iraqi Hospital Nurses

To investigate (a) the occurrence and frequency of physical workplace violence among Iraqi hospital nurses as well as the complaints and responses of nurses to such violence; (b) measures and policies in the workplace to deal with violence; and (c) factors that contribute to the workplace violence and the strategies to prevent them from Iraqi nurses' perspective. A descriptive exploratory survey was used. The structured interview technique was used for collecting data from a purposive sample of 116 Iraqi nurses. An adapted version of the original instrument that was developed by the International Labor Office (ILO), the International Council of Nurses (ICN), the World Health Organization (WHO), and the Public Services International (PSI) on Workplace Violence in the Health Sector was used. Forty-nine of 116 participants reported that they have been physically attacked at work. Few employers had specific policies on workplace violence. The results of the study indicated the importance of adopting hospital policies for dealing with incidents of violence and legislation to subject aggressors to judicial punishment.

Suffering in Silence: The Political Aesthetics of Pain in Antonine Art

In this paper, two striking representations of screaming or shouting male barbarians, one on the Column of Marcus Aurelius in Rome and the other on the Pannonian tombstone of the Roman legionary C. Septimus, are analysed and discussed in detail. These two disturbing and provocative images of suffering are situated in the broader context of institutionalised violence in Roman society, as reflected in certain kinds of judicial punishments and in the games in the arena, and of depictions of pain and suffering in other contexts, both ancient and modern.

The Revolution of Peter the Great by James s> Cracraft (review)

340 SEER, 83, 2, 2005 their competences over Jews; the gradual extension of dominial interference in the affairsof kahals, such as the appointment of rabbis;Jews' treatmentby state, ecclesiastical and municipal courts; and the lords' attitudes to 'their' Jews as reflected in the judicial punishments imposed upon them. The latter seem to reflect a business-like approach more fines, but rather fewer floggings than were inflicted upon the Christianpopulation. Many magnates seem to have despisedtheJews personallywhile favouringthem economically. The same Pawel Sanguszkosentenced to deathJews accused of ritualmurder, while simultaneouslyabrogatingthe privilegesof existinginhabitantsin order to settleJews upon his estates (p. 86). Jews increasinglypreferredto settle in private towns than royal towns, where they enjoyed less protection from the municipal and ecclesiastical courts. The author plausibly suggests that one reason for the denser settlement of Jews in the eastern half of the Commonwealth was the much sparserparishnetworkof the Roman Catholic Church. The book is notable for its clear exposition of the varieties of estate organization and courtjurisdiction and procedures, itsjudiciousjudgements, and its copious and well chosen examples. These vividlyillustratethe situation of 'the lord'sJews', balanced precariouslybetween theirlowly legal statusand theireconomic indispensability. School ofHistory RICHARD BUTTERWICK Queen's University Belfast Cracraft, James. 7he Revolution of PetertheGreat.Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MAandLondon,2003. ix + 192 pp. Illustrations. Chronology . Notes. Furtherreading.Index. $25.95: [i 6.95. HAVING recently completed his excellent trilogy of works dealing with the 'revolution'which took place in severalareasof Russian endeavour (imagery, architecture and, most recently, verbal culture)during the reign of Peter the Great(i682-1725), James Cracrafthas produceda concise'interpretative history of the Petrine era' (p. viii), presumably aimed at the undergraduate and non-specialist reader. His aim is to draw together the various strandsof his considerable scholarship to discuss his theory that Russia underwent a 'cultural revolution' during Peter's reign. Although the phrase 'cultural revolution' may raise concerns in some quarters,Cracraftdefines it in careful terms, taking culture in its widest possible sense as 'the innumerable ways human beings have of making and doing things, and of thinking and talking about them' (p. 76). He begins, in the firstchapter,by looking atthe reforming tsarhimself. Rather than simplyproviding a potted biography, the focus is on Peter'scharacter and how it influenced his reign. Cracraftalso examines the tsar'srelationshipwith the membersof hisclose circle,highlightingthevarious groups within it such as foreigners and those of low or obscure social backgrounds,and his immediate family, particularlyhis wife, Catherine, and eldest son, Aleksei, to discuss the role they played in shaping and executing the tsar'svarious plans. Several pages are devoted to a discussion of Peter's dreams, which Peter himself considered important enough to note their content a subjecton which Cracrafthas alreadywritten. REVIEWS 341 The following chapters concentrate on three broad areas of development during Peter's reign: the military and naval spheres; the bureaucratic and diplomatic services;and Russian culture.The lattercovers many of the points raised in the trilogy mentioned above and the section dealing with the importance of the linguistic impact of Peter's reign gives a welcome introduction to a neglected area, dealt with in detail in Cracraft'srecently published ThePetrine Revolution in RussianCulture (Cambridge, MA, 2004). In each of these chapters, Cracraftsets out the wider European context before moving on to considerthecasepresentedby PetrineRussia.This isparticularly important when addressing some of the criticismslevelled at Peter'spolicies by modern historians.So, for example, although Peter'smilitaryreforms,the creation of a navy and pursuitof an aggressiveforeign policy were extremely expensive, they were not unusual in early modern Europe, with France and England draining their respective coffers to similar ends (pp. 38-39). Similarly ,ratherthan dwell on whether the PetrineState was of the 'well-ordered police' variety or an updating of the Muscovite patrimonial system, he draws comparison with contemporary Sweden and Prussia, whose absolute monarchies provided models of reform for Peter, in terms of his government and its bureaucracy (p. 65). However, the necessary brevity of each section can lead to some points of debate being passedoververyquickly.Forexample, the view that the Table of Ranks (1722) introduced a system of seniority and merit, ratherthan one of 'ascription'(p. 6i), does not seem to takeaccount of Brenda Meehan-Water'sAutocracy andAristocracy (New...

Å»ydzi w dobrach prywatnych w świetle sÄ downiczej i administracyjnej praktyki dóbr magnackich w wiekach XVI-XVIII by Adam Kaźmierczyk (review)

REVIEWS 339 fabric of travel writing and its importance for Muscovite history. However, the book isunlikelyto move the historyof Muscovy fromitspresentperipheral position to mainstream historical research, because it does not provide sufficientground for an intense intellectualdebate either about Muscovy and its historyor about the Renaissance discoveriesof the World. Despite this, Orbisis an intensely scholarly work which recommends its author as a person of greateruditionand considerableapplication. HerfordCollege, Oxford MARIA UNKOVSKAYA Kazmierczyk,Adam. Zydziwdobrachpywatnych ws'wietle sidowniczej i administracyjnejpraktykidobr magnackich w wiekachXVI-XVIII. Studia Judaica Cracoviensia. Series Dissertationum, I. Ksiegarnia Akademicka, Krakow, 2002. 276 PP.Map. Bibliography.Notes. Summaryin English. Priceunknown. STUDIES such asMoshe Rosman's TheLord's Jews(Cambridge,MA, I990) and Gershon Hundert's 7The J7ews in a PolishPrivateTown(Baltimore, MD, I992) have illuminatedthe vital economic relationshipbetween magnates andJews in the eighteenth-century Polish-LithuanianCommonwealth. Nobles gained jurisdiction over Jews living in their lands and towns from the king in 1539. By the mid-eighteenth century, between a half and three-quarters of the Commonwealth's Jews lived under private jurisdiction. On the one hand, 'private'Jews' legal status became more dependent on their lords, a process parallelto the gradualwitheringof autonomousJewish institutionswithin the Commonwealth. They were left largely defenceless against chicanery and arbitraryviolence from nobles and estate managers. On the other hand, the economic ties between Jews and nobles (especially the magnates) deepened within this 'protection racket', aggravating hostility towards the Jews from both burghersand peasants, and the complaint that Poland-Lithuaniawas a Paradisus Judaeorum. Adam Kazmierczyk's doctoral research on the Commonwealth's parliamentary institutions(Sejmy i sejmiki szlacheckie wobec Zyddw w drugiejpolowie XVII wieku,I994) demonstrated the extent of noble protection for 'their'Jews and of course the defence of their own jurisdiction over them. He has now bridged an important gap in the historiographybetween 'private'Jews' legal status and their economic role by focusing on the ways in which their legal statuswas reflectedin theirtreatmentby theirlords'courtsand administrators. He has trawledthrough an impressivenumber of court records,supplications and estate correspondence from acrossPoland, and delved into the Radziwill and Czartoryskiarchivesto illuminatethe GrandDuchy of Lithuania.He has also made extensive use of published primarysources. Most of these records datefromtheperiod afterthe devastatingCossackrevoltand Swedishinvasion in the mid-seventeenth century. Six representativedocuments, mostly from the early eighteenth century, are printed as annexes. Nevertheless, the perspective is the longue duree. The book is divided into six chapters, covering: the Jews' legal status and conditions of settlement;the organization of noble estates and their role in exercisingjudicial power overJews; estate courtsand 340 SEER, 83, 2, 2005 their competences over Jews; the gradual extension of dominial interference in the affairsof kahals, such as the appointment of rabbis;Jews' treatmentby state, ecclesiastical and municipal courts; and the lords' attitudes to 'their' Jews as reflected in the judicial punishments imposed upon them. The latter seem to reflect a business-like approach more fines, but rather fewer floggings than were inflicted upon the Christianpopulation. Many magnates seem to have despisedtheJews personallywhile favouringthem economically. The same Pawel Sanguszkosentenced to deathJews accused of ritualmurder, while simultaneouslyabrogatingthe privilegesof existinginhabitantsin order to settleJews upon his estates (p. 86). Jews increasinglypreferredto settle in private towns than royal towns, where they enjoyed less protection from the municipal and ecclesiastical courts. The author plausibly suggests that one reason for the denser settlement of Jews in the eastern half of the Commonwealth was the much sparserparishnetworkof the Roman Catholic Church. The book is notable for its clear exposition of the varieties of estate organization and courtjurisdiction and procedures, itsjudiciousjudgements, and its copious and well chosen examples. These vividlyillustratethe situation of 'the lord'sJews', balanced precariouslybetween theirlowly legal statusand theireconomic indispensability. School ofHistory RICHARD BUTTERWICK Queen's University Belfast Cracraft, James. 7he Revolution of PetertheGreat.Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MAandLondon,2003. ix + 192 pp. Illustrations. Chronology . Notes. Furtherreading.Index. $25.95: [i 6.95. HAVING recently completed his excellent trilogy of works dealing with the 'revolution'which took place in severalareasof Russian endeavour (imagery, architecture and, most recently, verbal culture)during the reign of Peter the Great(i682-1725), James Cracrafthas produceda concise'interpretative history of the Petrine era' (p. viii), presumably aimed at the undergraduate and non-specialist reader. His aim is to draw together the various...

Within Each Lawyer's Conscience a Touchstone: Law, Morality, and Attorney Civil Disobedience

Lawyers, like all citizens, inevitably face conflicts between their responsibility to the law and their moral obligations. Attorneys, however, have a unique range of options for resolving such conflicts. They not only have power and privilege in the legal system that other citizens lack, but they also assume a heightened duty to that system and to the law. As the Model Code of Professional Responsibility states, “[t]o lawyers especially, respect for the law should be more than a platitude.” Civil disobedience has become an accepted method for citizens to resist the authority of the state on moral grounds. By committing civil disobedience and willingly accepting judicial punishment, one can protest the moral content of a law while still respecting the legal duty it imposes. This Comment addresses whether the current rules of professional ethics leave the option of civil disobedience available to attorneys, and asks under what circumstances attorneys may be justified in exercising that option.

“Give Him a Doing”: The Birching of Young Offenders in Scotland

Beginning in 1850 a series of governmental commissions were struck in Britain to examine the position of children in relation to the law. The purpose of these commissions was to examine the role of judicial punishment in the treatment of juvenile delinquency. The general view adopted reflected many elements of the late-Victorian conception of male-delinquency; hence, the various acts regulating juvenile justice suggested that whipping was an unsuitable penalty for adults, and the corporal punishment of girls disappeared except in reformatories. However, whipping was described as an ideal method of treating boy offenders. But by the early twentieth century, whipping was falling out of favour in England. In Scotland, despite opposition, birching continued to be used alongside probation. This paper examines the battle over the birch in Scotland, where by the 1930s a coalition of anti-birching labour organizations, women’s groups, rural and urban police, magistrates, and social workers were challenging the use of this time-honoured method of punishment.

Book of the Month: The Medical Profession and Human Rights

Book of the Month: The Medical Profession and Human Rights

Issues in Review: Reading Acting Companies

Scott McMillin : This collection of three papers, selected by Scott McMillin, highlights new scholarly work on the repertory of Strange's Men, Pembroke's Men, and Queen Anne's Men. Lawrence Manley : The repertory of Strange's Men, as it is represented in Henslowe's records of their 134 performances at the Rose Theatre in 1592/3, contains an unusually large number of plays involving pyrotechnics, possibly including the staging of human immolations. Though pyrotechnics were a familar feature of traditional dramaturgy, such effects were used by Strange's Men to represent acts of cruelty and judicial punishment that had an edge of topical relevance to English history and politics. The theatrical daring of pyrotechnics in the Strange's repertory may thus have been part of a 'company style' that readily accommodated the politically daring and dramatically innovative work of Marlowe in The Jew of Malta and The Massacre at Paris and of the young Shakespeare in 1 Henry VI . Roslyn Knutson : Although Pembroke's Men in 1592/3 had talented (if youthful) players and a patron in good standing with the queen, the company reportedly fell on hard times. No one knows why. Here I consider whether the problem might have been the repertory, which I explore in terms of the four plays known to be theirs ( Edward II , 1 Contention , The True Tragedy , and A Shrew ), or their touring schedule. Mark Bayer : In 1616, Queen Anne's Men, under the management of Christopher Beeston, moved theatrical operations from the Red Bull, a large public playhouse in Clerkenwell, to the Cockpit, an indoor hall on the increasingly fashionable Drury Lane. The success of this move was overshadowed by a riot on Shrove Tuesday, 1617, in which apprentices damaged the new theatre, forcing the company to return temporarily to the Red Bull while the Cockpit was under repair. Narratives of this event tend to describe it either as an indiscriminate episode of civil unrest or, more cogently, as demonstrating a specific animosity towards Queen Anne's Men because they were now playing the Red Bull repertory at a prohibitively expensive venue. In an effort to revise these received interpretations, I argue that the reasons for the riot go well beyond the release of aggression and issues of cost. The profit-driven motives of the Queen Anne's Men violated communal principles of fair dealing and their abandonment of the Red Bull and Clerkenwell affected a more intangible sense of loss and indignation, placing pressures on local businesses that relied on the daily theatre traffic, and severely weakening charitable efforts within the parish.

The New Debate About Shame in Criminal Justice: An Interactionist Account

A new debate has emerged that focuses on the potentiality of shaming as an instrument of formal social control. This article analyzes the new debate by resurrecting and elaborating on core concepts of labeling theory. Labeling theory dominated criminological thinking in the 1960s and 1970s, but fell into disrepute. With the demise of labeling, an important core issue was lost. Social standing in the community matters. Stigma, deserved or undeserved, has significant consequences for the stigmatized. The article concludes that judicial shame penalties are theoretically problematic, but reintegrative shaming alternatives, such as those found in restorative justice programs, are more promising.

The Place of Punishment in Kant's Rechtslehre

If Kant had never written the section of the Rechtslehre on punishment we would still have known from the Critique of Practical Reason that he held a strongly retributive view of punishment. But it is not a view which we could have inferred from the rest of the Rechtslehre. Despite its intuitive appeal, Kant's justification of judicial punishment simply does not fit the account of right he gives in the Rechtslehre. According to this account the only justification for coercion is that it constitutes a ‘hindering of a hindrance’ to freedom. But there is no way in which this requires punishment to be retributive.

Comment on Gorner

In his incisive and provocative analysis, ‘The place of punishment in Kant's Rechtslehre’, Paul Gorner discusses many aspects of Kant's position. I concentrate on his main contention:Kant's justification of judicial punishment simply does not fit the account of right he gives in the Rechtslehre. According to this account the only justification for coercion is that it constitutes a ‘hindering of a hindrance’ to freedom. But there is no way in which this requires punishment to be retributive.

The Judicial and Judicious Use of Shame Penalties

This article analyzes and critiques the recent use of judicial shame penalties. Arguing that these penalties are designed to satisfy a “retributive impulse,” they communicate and enforce normative, as opposed to legal, standards. The power of the sanction is found in the threat of social exclusion. Three classes of shame penalties are identified: public exposure, debasement, and apology penalties. Critique of the penalties focuses on the risk of stigmatization and exclusion, the structural preconditions for offender reintegration, and the potentiality of using shame sanctions in an individualistic society.

English Prisons, Penal Culture, and the Abatement of Imprisonment, 1895–1922

The prison method is callous, regular and monotonous and produces great mental and physical strain. The deprivation of liberty is extremely cruel and if it is attended with treatment that deadens the spiritual nature and fails to offer any stimulus to the imagination, that coarsens and humiliates, then it stands condemned. (Arthur Creech Jones, conscientious objector, Wandsworth Prison, 1916–19)The nineteenth century was the century of the penitentiary. Public and physical punishments (from whipping to the death penalty) were gradually replaced by the less visible, less corporal sanction of imprisonment. By the start of the Victorian era, imprisonment was the predominant penalty in the system of judicial punishments. For every 1,000 offenders sentenced at higher and summary courts in 1836 for serious (or indictable) offenses, 685 were punished by imprisonment in local prisons. By midcentury, moreover, sentences of penal servitude in convict prisons were plugging the gap left by the end of transportation to Australia. The three hundred or so local prisons in the 1830s, to which offenders were sent for anywhere between one day and two years (though typically for terms of less than three months), were locally controlled until 1877 and were less than uniform in regime. The separate system of prison discipline (or cellular isolation) increasingly prevailed over the silent system (or associated, silent labor), but it was subject to considerable local modification. Convict prisons were run by central government with less variability.

Healed limb amputations in human osteoarchaeology and their causes: A case study from Ipswich, UK

An adult male skeleton of Medieval date from Ipswich, UK, shows amputation of the right hand. The morphology of the bones suggests a quiescent stump, in which healing had been completed some time before death. Osteometric, morphological and radiographic data show that the mutilated limb continued to function but was used to a lesser degree than the intact side. A review of some of the literature on the osteoarchaeological evidence for healed limb amputations showed that interpretations generally fall into three broad categories: surgical intervention, judicial punishments and blade injuries. In the Ipswich case the skeletal evidence offered few clues as to the reasons for the mutilation, but historical evidence suggested a possible personal identification for the burial and that the cause of the amputation was a blade injury sustained as a result of a violent assault.

Healed limb amputations in human osteoarchaeology and their causes: A case study from Ipswich, UK

An adult male skeleton of Medieval date from Ipswich, UK, shows amputation of the right hand. The morphology of the bones suggests a quiescent stump, in which healing had been completed some time before death. Osteometric, morphological and radiographic data show that the mutilated limb continued to function but was used to a lesser degree than the intact side. A review of some of the literature on the osteoarchaeological evidence for healed limb amputations showed that interpretations generally fall into three broad categories: surgical intervention, judicial punishments and blade injuries. In the Ipswich case the skeletal evidence offered few clues as to the reasons for the mutilation, but historical evidence suggested a possible personal identification for the burial and that the cause of the amputation was a blade injury sustained as a result of a violent assault.