Native Judges Research Articles

Color reproduction and the naturalness constraint

This article aims to determine the process underlying the subjective impression about the fidelity of reproduced object colors. To this end, we present the concept of the naturalness constraint and a framework for specification of naturalness judgments. We consider several research questions that are essential for this framework and discuss plausible answers supported by experiments. In general, naturalness assessment of reproduced object colors can be (1) defined as similarity to prototypical object colors, and (2) characterized by a probability density function (e.g., Gaussian). Experiments show that (3) there is a considerable amount of consistency in naturalness judgments of locally and globally processed images (although observers are slightly more tolerant of global image processing), and (4) naturalness judgments vary for different object categories; e.g., subjects are more consistent in naturalness judgments of skin, grass, and sky reproductions than shirt reproduction. We suggest that (5) naturalness of a whole picture is determined by the naturalness of the most critical object in that picture. Finally, we introduce a naturalness index predicting perceived naturalness of color reproduction of real-life scenes. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Col Res Appl, 24, 52–67, 1999

Relevant Perceptual Factors in Stereoscopic Displays: Image Disparity, Convergence Distance, and Focus Length

Traditionally, visually relevant factors in stereoscopic displays have been investigated within a performance-oriented framework, focusing on the veridicality of depth perception. However, for some applications, most notably in the areas of broadcasting and entertainment, an appreciation-oriented approach seems to be more relevant. Within this framework, we investigated the influence of image disparity, convergence distance, and focus length on the subjective assessment of depth, naturalness of depth, and quality of depth (or preference). Twelve observers with normal or corrected-to-normal vision and good stereopsis viewed a fully randomised presentation of stereoscopic still images that varied systematically in image disparity (six levels of camera base difference: 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 24 cm), convergence distance (two levels: 1.30 m and 2.60 m) and focus length (two levels: 10 mm and 20 mm). Each observer was asked to rate, in separate counterbalanced sessions, his/her impression of depth, naturalness of depth, and quality of depth. The results indicate that observers prefer a stereoscopic presentation of images over a monoscopic presentation. A clear optimum was found at 4 cm image disparity for subjective judgments of naturalness and of quality. Depth judgements increased up to an image disparity of 12 cm, a result that is in line with earlier psychophysical literature. There was an effect of focus length only at extreme image disparities. An effect of convergence distance was also found that can be adequately explained by rescaling to match the effective visual disparities. Although there was a strong linear correlation between naturalness and quality (r = 0.96), a small but systematic deviation could be observed. This deviation was best modelled by a linear quality model that incorporates both naturalness and depth.

Naturalness and Image Quality: Saturation and Lightness Variation in Color Images of Natural Scenes

The relation between perceived image quality and naturalness was investigated by varying the colorfulness of natural images at various lightness levels. At each lightness level, subjects assessed perceived colorfulness, naturalness, and quality as a function of average saturation by means of direct category scaling. Colorfulness was found to increase monotonically with average saturation. The relation between the quality/naturalness judgments and average saturation could always be described by an inverted U-shaped function. A systematic difference was found between quality and naturalness judgments. This difference, reflecting the subjects' preference for more colorful, but, at the same time, somewhat unnatural images, was most noticeable at the original lightness level and diminished with decreasing lightness, in particular being least at the lowest lightness level investigated.

Identifying Targets of Communication Styles: An Exploratory Study

The present study investigated the identification of communication styles. Native and foreign adult judges viewed 60 audiovisual clips of women who were instructing one of four listeners: a child, a foreign adult speaker, a mentally retarded adult, or a native adult speaker of normal intelligence. The judges were asked to identify the listener in each clip. Overall, native judges were more accurate than foreign judges at identifying the listeners. In addition, more listeners were accurately identified by the native and foreign judges when the listener was a child or a normal native adult speaker Systematic errors suggest that accuracy in judgments may be influenced by similar and overlapping linguistic and paralinguistic features contained in the special communication styles and previous expectations about the listener groups.

Stuttering and speech naturalness: audio and audiovisual judgments.

Unsophisticated raters, using 9-point interval scales, judged speech naturalness and stuttering severity of recorded stutterer and nonstutterer speech samples. Raters judged separately the audio-only and audiovisual presentations of each sample. For speech naturalness judgments of stutterer samples, raters invariably judged the audiovisual presentation more unnatural than the audio presentation of the same sample; but for the nonstutterer samples, there was no difference between audio and audiovisual naturalness ratings. Stuttering severity ratings did not differ significantly between audio and audiovisual presentations of the same samples. Rater reliability, interrater agreement, and intrarater agreement for speech naturalness judgments were assessed.

The effect of accentuation and word duration on the naturalness of speech

In this study the effect of appropriate word duration and correct (pitch) accentuation on the naturalness of speech was investigated. In the stimulus material, the information value of the target word determined the correctness of accentuation ([new, +accent] and [old, -accent] were defined as correct). Appropriate word duration was defined as either "in agreement with accentuation" ([long, +accent] and [short, -accent]) or "in agreement with information value" ([long, new] and [short, old]). Listeners were asked to give naturalness judgments along a scale from 1 (very unnatural) to 10 (very natural) on fragments consisting of two sentences. Duration and accentuation of the target word, which always occurred in the second sentence, were manipulated separately and in combinations. Judgments show that accentuation that is not in agreement with information value causes a significant decrease of naturalness. When accentuation is in agreement with information value but duration is inappropriate for both factors, the perceived naturalness decreases significantly. However, listeners were unable to give consistent naturalness judgments on the manipulated word durations in fragments with incorrect accent distributions. Based on these results and the findings of an earlier production study [W. Eefting, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 89, 412-424 (1991)], which showed that duration is not involved in the realization of pitch accent, the following is suggested. Speakers adapt both accentuation and word duration in order to indicate that a word contains relevant information. Presence of an accent distinguishes the word from its (less relevant) environment. A longer duration provides the listener with the extra time that is needed in order to process the word's content adequately.

Contingencies of Value: Alternative Perspectives for Critical Theory

1. Fixed Marks and Variable Constancies: A Parable of Value Evaluating Shakespeare's Sonnets Critical Problematics 2. The Exile of Evaluation Fact and Value in the Literary Academy The Politics of Evaluative Criticism An Alternative Project 3. Contingencies of Value Contingency and Interdependence Matters of Taste Processes of Evaluation The Dynamics of Endurance 4. Axiologic Logic Hume's Natural Standard Kant's Pure Judgments Logical Tastes and The Other's Poison Three Postaxiological Postscripts 5. Truth/Value Judgment Typology and Maclntyre's Fall Value without Truth-Value Changing Places: Truth, Error, and Deconstruction 6. The Critiques of Utility Humanism, Anti-Utilitarianism, and the Double Discourse of Value Bataille's Expenditure Endless (Ex)Change 7. Matters of Consequence Critiques and Charges: The Objectivist Generation of "Relativism" Quietism and the Active Relativist Community, Solidarity, and the Pragmatist's Dilemma Politics and Justification Conceptual Tastes and Practical Consequences Notes Index

Acoustical Durations of Speech Segments During Stuttering Adaptation

Acoustical durations of stutter- and disfluency-free speech segments from Readings #1 and #5 in an adaptation series were measured in 4 adapting, 4 nonadapting, and 4 nonstuttering subjects. The segment durations measured were intervocalic interval, stop-gap, voice onset time, and vowel duration. No clear trends in the change of acoustical durations from Reading #1 to Reading #5 distinguished the adapting, nonadapting, or nonstuttering subjects. Moreover, on the basis of speech naturalness judgements, listeners did not differentiate the Reading #1 and #5 phrase segments of subjects with high adaptation versus those with low adaptation scores. From these findings and related literature, adaptation of stuttering, as well as other fluency-inducing conditions, are viewed as circumstances that reduce demands upon central motor-linguistic processes.

The central distinction in the theory of corporate moral personhood

Peter French has argued that conglomerate collectivities such as business corporations are moral persons and that aggregate collectivities such as lynch mobs are not. Two arguments are advanced to show that French's claim is flawed. First, the distinction between aggregates and conglomerates is, at best, a distinction of degree, not kind. Moreover, some aggregates show evidence of moral personhood. Second, French's criterion for distinguishing aggregates and conglomerates is based on inadequate grounds. Application of the criterion to specific cases requires an additional judgment of a pragmatic nature which undermines any attempt to demonstrate French's thesis that actual conglomerates are moral persons and aggregates are not. Thus, French's theory is seriously lacking both empirical basis and empirical relevance.

Perception of naturalness in landscape and its relationship to vegetation structure

The perceived naturalness of 71 landscapes depicting a range of structural vegetation forms and various levels and kinds of structural alteration was judged by 81 subjects of varying age and academic background. The subject's judgements of naturalness were analysed in relation to the dimensions of Specht's classification of vegetation structure and the kind and extent of structural change. Judgements of naturalness fell in the upper half of the possible range, but varied continuously between the limits, indicating that absence of human intervention is not the only basis for naturalness judgements. Within-scene variance decreased with perceived naturalness indicating less consensus in low-naturalness scenes among the subjects. This may be caused by the subjects switching the basis on which judgements are made about conflicting elements common in these scenes. The subjects' judgements of naturalness were related to ecological naturalness but not equivalent. Tall and dense vegetation was judged more natural than low, open vegetation. The subjects could detect structural changes in all vegetation, but were less discriminating as height increased: they were more sensitive to changes in open vegetation than in dense vegetation. Scrub vegetation was seen as less natural than others, and the subjects rated all structural changes in it equally unnatural. This may relate to congnitive dimensions of involvement with the scene and implications of human scale. Agents of structural change were seen as unnatural (e.g. grazing, dereliction and weed invasion) but fire was not. The implications of differences in perceived and ecological naturalness for landscape planning and design are discussed.

BEFRIENDING AN AMORAL NATURE

Abstract. Contrary to George C. Williams, moral judgments of nature are not appropriate, whereas affirmation of the intrinsic value of creation is. The concern for offspring and kin identified by Williams as the principle force of evolution is not inherently evil in its operation in human society. Instead of juxtaposing it as enemy to justice and altruism, we should try to extend the scope of felt kinship to the whole human race.

Modification of listener-judged naturalness in the speech of stutterers.

This study investigated the effect of regular feedback of listener-judged speech naturalness ratings on the speech of stutterers. Six adult stutterers each participated in a time-series ABA experiment. During the treatment phase the stutterer was instructed to improve a clinician's rating, on a 9-point scale, of the naturalness of each 30-s interval of the stutterer's spontaneous speech. The results indicate that the naturalness ratings and stuttering for 5 of the subjects made favorable changes during the treatment phase. Analyses of the findings show that only some of the naturalness judgments were influenced by stuttering frequency and speech rate. A perceptual analysis of the speech of 2 subjects suggested that the speech naturalness ratings were also probably influenced by other less obvious variables.

Communicative Error Evaluation: Native Speakers' Evaluation and Interpretation of Written Errors of Arab EFL Learners

The study reported in this article attempted to evaluate the communicative effect on native speakers of a selected sample of grammatical and semantic errors in written English. Two types of measures were used: evaluation (intelligibility and naturalness judgments) and interpretation. The effects of error type (grammatical/semantic) and immediate linguistic context (in and out of context) on each of these measures were determined. An attempt was made to address some of the methodological weaknesses of the majority of such studies to date. Semantically deviant utterances were judged to be less intelligible and interpretable than were grammatically deviant utterances. Context did not influence native speakers' ability to interpret the writer's intent. Most important, there was no association between native speakers' judgments on the two measures of intelligibility and interpretation (comprehension). This result raises questions about the basis of intelligibility judgments, since they do not appear to reflect native speakers' actual comprehension of the meaning intended by the writer. Rather, they appear to indicate the extent to which native speakers think they understand the meaning of the deviant utterances. The implications of these results for classroom teaching and future research on communicative error evaluation are discussed.

The role of nasalization in the perception of synthesized speech

Thus far synthesized speech has been reported by phonetically naive listeners as sounding “metallic” or “as if the speaker had a cold.” One of the explanations for the above is that the simulation of nasal coupling is not close enough to natural speech. We report on research on diphone synthesized utterances (Dixon and Maxey, 1968). In order to simulate a better set of nasalized vowels in synthesized speech, a new set of diphones was created to replace the original ones in those cases in which there is a nasal consonant in the immediate vicinity. These new diphones were the result of hand‐painting single nasal formants in addition to the regular formant frequencies found in the original diphones. Utterances made of both the new and old sets of diphones were played to phonetically naive listeners. Results on naturalness judgments and on intelligibility will be presented.

Sex differences in spatial ability and spatial activities

Explanations of sex-related differences in spatial ability emphasizing the role of sex-differentiated experience have not been supported by direct measurement of spatial activities during adolescence, the period when these differences seem to increase. The present research involved development of a scale to measure the spatial experience of adolescents and adults. In Study 1, a list, as complete as possible of adolescent activities was compiled and given to undergraduate judges for ratings of involvement of spatial skills and sex-typing. Judges also indicated whether they had participated in each activity. Activities considered spatial by 75% or more of the judges were used to develop a spatial experience questionnaire. Judgments of the spatial nature of tasks were positively correlated with judged masculinity and with greater male than female participation. In Study 2, participation in spatial activities by undergraduates was correlated with spatial ability as measured by the Differential Aptitude Test. The activity questionnaire should prove useful in studying the development of spatial ability in adolescents and adults.

Segmentation of speech in a foreign language

The subjects' ability to segment foreign speech was examined. Naturalness judgments regarding three syntactically defined pauses [between constituents (noun and verb phrases), words, or syllables] were obtained using a paired-presentation, forced-choice paradigm. It was hypothesized that segmentation skill developed through exposure to lexical and syntactic markers. Teh existence and effect of such markers was investigated by assigning subjects to various exposure conditions. Results indicated that lexical and syntactic markers exist and can be utilized by subjects in segmenting speech. Contrary to previous research, however, exposure did not facilitate performance. All groups discriminated constituents from either words or syllables, and words from syllables. Results were interpreted as reflecting the interdependence of syntax and suprasegmental phonology. Results challenged the credibility of traditional associationist accounts of language acquisition and speech perception. Results were discussed in the context of Martin's theory of the rhythmic structure of speech.

Developmental changes through adolescence in the spontaneous nomination of reference groups as a function of decision content

The achievement of behavioral autonomy and psychological independence from the family is one of the foremost developmental tasks of the adolescent. This aspect of adolescent socialization is examined with regard to the developmental trends in the individual's nomination of socialization groups as competent referents in different areas of judgment. Eighty subjects, distributed equally between sex and among samples drawn from the fifth, seventh, ninth, and twelfth grades, were interviewed and allowed to nominate spontaneously reference groups of their own choosing for guidance in moral, informational, and social judgments. A significant relation was found between the nomination of a particular reference group and the nature of the decision to be made. The distribution of reference group nominations among the grade levels sampled differed significantly in the case of informational and social judgments. With increasing age during adolescence, peers seemed to be a more acceptable source of information in matters of social judgment than either parents or adults outside the family. Adults outside the family, however, exhibited a marked increase in acceptability as a reference group for judgments of an informational nature. Parents seemed to be the most acceptable referent across all grades for moral judgments. The findings are viewed particularly in relation to the results of studies which have examined developmental trends in simulated group conformity situations and susceptibility to cross-pressures. The possible reasons for the different developmental phenomena revealed by this study and by the conformity studies are discussed.

Hobbes's Study and the Hardwick Library

Notes and Discussions HOBBES'S STUDY AND THE HARDW/CK LIBRARY The widely held, scholarly maxim that all great theorists are the beneficiaries of the thought of their predecessors presents more difficulty to the scholar concerned with Thomas Hobbes's political and moral ideas than to most other scholars. The greatest frustration facing the Hobbes scholar must surely be the risky business of identifying previous thinkers who were influential in the development of Hobbes's political theory. Such an inquiry inevitably will involve a degree of informed conjecture . This essay aims at providing a basis for investigation that limits conjecture. There is direct evidence of only a few of the books Hobbes read, but it is possible to introduce method into an inquiry into the intellectual sources of his political theory by examining his account of his study and the contents of the library available to him during most of his study, the library of the Cavendishes at Hardwick Hall. A case for the influence of a given thinker can be made if textual analysis of Hobbes suggests that thinker's ideas, and if that thinker's works are, in addition, consonant with Hobbes's reports of his study or were in the Hardwick Library when Hobbes studied there. Some selections are provided below from the seventeenth-century catalogues of the library that are preserved today at Chatsworth. It is impossible to trace with precision all the intellectual influences on Hobbes. The chief problem is the paucity of references to the works of other writers in his letters, manuscripts, and printed works. In fact, Hobbes sometimes gives the impression that he read very little, that his philosophy and its doctrines, the only true ones, were developed from first principles and observation by his own creative genius alone. "He was wont to say," Aubrey reports, "that if he had read as much as other men, he should have known no more than other men. ''1 Even the most cursory examination of Hobbes's works suggests a profound originality. Hobbes expressly rejected the prevailing philosophical doctrines of his time and sought to build a new philosophy upon new foundations. He condemned appeal to authority. Accepting uncritically the vocabulary and conclusions of others is not science, he reasoned, but trust. If one does not conceive the meanings of words, one cannot verify experience and matters of fact. Wrong definitions will lead to utter nonsense, which is worse than ignorance. Moreover, the habit of taking opinions on trust may be dangerous, for some men--Hobbes had the scholastics particularly in mind--would manipulate the opinions of others for their own fraudulent ends.2 ' John Aubrey, "'Brief Lives, "' chiefly of Contemporaries, ed. AndrewClark, 2 vols.(Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1898), 1:349. [ have modernizedspellingsin all quotations. z Evidentlyreferring to his own relationship with a scholastic opponent, BishopBrarnhall, Hobbes laments that "by reading others, men commonly obstruct the way to their own exact and natural judgment, and use their wit bothto deceivethemselveswithfallacies,and to requitethose, whoendeavor at theirownentreatyto instructthem, withrevilings."ThusHobbesaccountedfor the violentopposition his doctrines were wont to exciteamong men of letters (Questions Concerning Liberty, Necessity, and Chance, in The English Works of Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury, ed. Sir WilliamMolesworth, 11vols. [London:John Bohn, 1839-45],5:441; hereaftercited as EW). [445] 446 HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY Hobbes must not be understood to mean that all reading is bad. Examination of the opinions of others may be profitable if it is done critically: "If in your own meditation you light upon a difficulty, I think it is no loss of time, to enquire what other men say of it, but to rely only upon reason. ''3 Hobbes's own study included reading as well as meditation. According to Clarendon, Hobbes was a man of "some reading, and somewhat more thinking. ''4 He undoubtedly read many of the most commonly read and the most important works of his time, such works as any educated man would have read, though he apparently owned few books himself. After his standard Aristotelian education at Oxford, Hobbes entered a long humanist period, which culminated in his translation of Thucydides, published in 1629. During this period he studied on the sufferance of his friend...

Learner's Language: Implications of Recent Research for Foreign Language Instruction

by a L2 learner is marked by deeper-level modifications. The learner may not know the L2 well enough to encode his message by the proper selection of grammatical categories: verb, noun phrase, adjective, etc. He will then be forced to employ a variety of strategies that may even include the modification of the intended messagel These strategiesapproximative communicative systems-include borrowing (improperly labelled interference by some researchers), calquing or loan translation, and paraphrasing. Materials designed to lead to some degree to communicative competence should incorporate activities that will provide practice in the use of these strategies. Finally, in the elaboration of efficient pedagogical sequences an important criterion should be the perception and evaluation of errors on the part of naive native listeners. Errors that native listeners fail to notice need minimal correction or y a L2 learne is marked by d eper-level modifiations. The learn r may not know the L2 well nough to encode his message by the proper sel cion of grammatical categories: verb, noun phrase, djective, tc. He will then be forced to employ a ariety of strategies that may even include the odification f the intended messagel These trategiesapproximative communicative sysems-include borrowing (improperly labelled interfer nce by some researchers), calquing or loan translation, and p raphrasing. Materials deigned to lead to some degree to communicative ompet nce should incorporate activities tha w ll rovide practice in the use of these stra egies. inally, in the elaboration of efficient pedaogical sequ nces an important criterion should e the perc ption and evaluation of err rs on the art of naive native listeners. Errors that native they may even find their place in pedagogical sequences if they lead to more rapid acquisition. F r example, in a pilot study it was observed that Fre ch listen rs scored very low (that is, they were very tolerant of) inaccurate renditions of uvular [R] or glided r alizations of final tense [e] and [o] but very high the nasalization of vowels occurring before nasal consonants and weakly released final consonants. This is not surprising since the latter two features serve to distinguish masculine from f m nine forms of adjectives or 3rd person singular from 3rd p rson plural present indicative forms of verbs (americain/americaine, vient/viennent; grand/grande, attend /attendent). Yet remedial pronunciation handbooks devote considerable space to [R] and the production of unglided final v wels while generally neglecting the inaccuracies re dily observed and severely scored by native judges. ey ay ev n find their place in p dagogical seences if they ead to more rapid acquisition. r example, in a pilot study it was observed that rench listen rs scored v ry low (that is, they were ery tolerant of) inaccurate enditio s of uvular ] or glid realiz t ons f final te se [e] and [o] t very igh the nasalization of vowels occurring efore nas l conso ants and weakly released fin l nsonants. This is not surprising since the latter o features serve to distinguish ma culine from e inine forms of adjectives or 3rd person singur from 3rd person plural p esent indicat ve forms verbs (americain/americaine, vient/ nnent; rand/grande, attend /attendent). Yet rem dial ro unciation handbooks devote considerable ace to [R] and the production of unglided final owels while generally neglecting the inaccuracies eadily observ d and sever ly scored by native

A comparison of judgmental policy equations obtained from human judges under natural and contrived conditions

During the last decade, numerous investigators have constructed mathematical models of experts' judgmental processes. However, investigators have not collected data from judges as they normally or naturally make their decisions. Instead, they have used artificial situations which contrived the judgment so that it differed in many ways from the natural judgmental conditions. Nonetheless, investigators have assumed that the models determined from contrived judgments were similar to models which would have been found if the natural judgment had been used. However, this assumption has not heretofore been investigated. Sufficient data have been collected concerning the ratings of acute suicide lethality made by telephone workers at the Suicide Prevention Center of Los Angeles to permit the construction of models of these workers' natural judgmental processes. The clinical records of two telephone workers were obtained, and regression models were constructed of their natural judgmental processes. These two workers, and two others, then made suicide lethality ratings in several contrived judgmental situations. The contrived situations differed as to the type of cue used, the methods by which the cue values were obtained, the number of ratings made, and the nature of the persons rated; consequently, some situations were more like the natural conditions than others. Multiple regression analyses were applied to the data, and policy equations were constructed for each worker for each type of contrived judgment. All of these judgmental models were compared, using an index which measured the agreement between the judges' policy equations. Great similarity was found among all the policy equations, both among those of the natural and contrived situations and among those of different workers. Even those models obtained from the most contrived judgmental situations were found to be highly similar to the natural policy equations. Thus, support was found for the assumption made by previous investigators that the models obtained under contrived and natural judgmental conditions are highly similar.