Court Judges Research Articles

„Czystość nazwiska rodzinnego klejnotem najdroższym”. Jak Gabriel Wiktor Rożniecki zrehabilitował nazwisko zdrajcy

Gabriel Wiktor Rola‑Rożniecki (born November 12, 1816, in Warsaw) was one of the most versatile Polish composers of the second half of the nineteenth century. He created various musical works: operas, operettas, ballets, oratorios, songs, masses, psalms, cantatas, symphonies, and string quartets. In the literature, he is presented as the son of the president of the Warsaw Government Theatres, cavalry general Aleksander Antoni Rola‑Rożniecki. However, archival sources contradict this, indicating that the musician was the biological son of a veteran of the Napoleonic campaigns, Lieutenant Ludwik Leduchowski, and Ludwika de Boyer Vernon, formerly Rynkiewicz, later Leduchowska. In 1838, his mother married General A. Rożniecki, and as a result of this marriage, her four sons, who until then bore the surname Leduchowski, were officially recognized as Rożniecki’s children. Rożniecki even asserted in the parish office of the Church of the Holy Cross in Warsaw that he was their biological father. Between 1844 and 1847, through court judgments, the stepfather disinherited the aforementioned sons. Gabriel studied at a Jesuit college in Paris and then graduated from the Polytechnic School in Palaiseau, simultaneously attending music studies and supporting himself by playing the cello. In 1839, he returned to Warsaw, performing as a singer on amateur stages. In 1844, to continue his musical education, he traveled to Rome, then in 1845 to Berlin, and subsequently to Vienna, developing his musical talent under the guidance of Henry Charles Litolff and Franz Liszt. In August 1846, he went to Rome, and in January 1847, he joined the St. Cecilia Music Academy there. Sought by the Russian authorities for avoiding conscription and leaving the country without permission, facing the risk of losing his nobility, in 1848 he enlisted in the foreign legion, fighting under the French flag during the conquest of Algeria. In 1849, he returned to Rome, co‑founding the Mickiewicz Legion. He was one of its most steadfast soldiers, staying close to the poet, who placed great trust in him. He participated in campaigns in Lombardy, Piedmont, and Tuscany, rising to the rank of second lieutenant. In April 1849, he fought alongside Giuseppe Garibaldi in defense of republican Rome. After the city’s capitulation and the disarming of the Legion, he went to Florence, starting efforts to return to Warsaw. He succeeded only after 9 years. He debuted as a conductor in September 1858, and in December, he took over the duties of the ballet orchestra director at the Warsaw Opera. Soon after, he became the conductor of the orchestra of the Warsaw Government Theatres. In January 1864, he married the former prima ballerina Marianna Aleksandra Freytag, with whom he had three children. After the premature death of his first son (Gabriel Junior) and his wife, in 1874, he opened a steam dyeing plant in Warsaw’s Praga district. Despite being equipped with the latest machinery used by such establishments in Western Europe at that time, it led to financial failure, contributing to the loss of savings and condemning the Rożnieckis (Gabriel raised his daughter Jozefa Teofila and son Henryk) to a life of poverty. Years of health problems led to his death on September 3, 1887, in Warsaw, due to complications from kidney stone surgery.

Ship Arrest in China: The Link with Economic and Marine Policy

Ship arrest enables the detention of a ship that has caused damage or owes money without requiring a court judgment. Ship arrest protects the claimant from evasive actions by the shipowner, such as transferring the ship to another company and changing the flag and the ship’s name. The availability of ship arrest goes back several centuries. However, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) has developed its domestic ship arrest system over the past 30 years. This article examines quantitatively, for the first time, how the PRC system operates in practice. Between 2014 and 2022, more than 5000 ships were arrested in the PRC. For 2000 of these, court reports are available. Ship arrest operates primarily as security for domestic claims. About 88% of the ships arrested were PRC-flagged ships. Half of these were commercial ships arrested for claims of mortgages and loans, goods and services provided to the ship, and crew wages. About 92% of the foreign ships arrested were commercial ships. These were arrested primarily for provisions and services, and charterparty and cargo claims. The number of berths at the ports supervised by each maritime court correlates well with the number of ship arrests, indicating that the system operates uniformly across the PRC. The number of ship arrests has been declining since 2016. The number of ship arrests with respect to collision claims does not indicate a trend. Ship arrests for pollution claims are uncommon. However, the large number of ships immobilised by arrest poses an environmental issue of wasteful pollution, which needs attention. The significant number of PRC ships arrested reflects an important domestic effect of ship arrest which needs attention.

Do wniosku o zmianę zezwolenia na prowadzenie apteki wniesionego po noweli prawa farmaceutycznego stosuje się przepisy nowe. Glosa aprobująca do wyroków Naczelnego Sądu Administracyjnego z dnia 18 kwietnia 2023 r. (II GSK 1374/19, Legalis nr 2920530; II GSK 1387/19, Legalis nr 2920524; II GSK 1452/19, Legalis nr 2920525; II GSK 719/20, Legalis nr 2957356; II GSK 720/20, Legalis nr 2957357)

On 18 April 2023, the Supreme Administrative Court issued five judgments in cases with reference numbers: II GSK 1374/19, II GSK 1387/19, II GSK 1452/19, II GSK 719/20 and II GSK 720/20. All cases concerned general partnerships operating pharmacies. In these cases, the issue giving rise to the dispute was the possibility of replacing the existing partners by persons who are not pharmacists or a partnership of pharmacists, as referred to in Article 99 (4) of the Act of 6 September 2001 – Pharmaceutical Law (consolidated text, Journal of Laws 2022, item 2301, as amended). The entity running the pharmacy obtained a permit before this provision was amended by the Act of 7 April 2017 amending the Pharmaceutical Law (Journal of Laws 2017, item 1015), but requested its amendment after the entry into force of this amendment. In three cases (reference numbers: II GSK 1374/19, II GSK 1387/19 and II GSK 1452/19), the Voivodeship Administrative Court overturned the decisions of the Chief Pharmaceutical Inspector refusing to change the permit to operate a pharmacy, which involved changing the persons running the pharmacy. However, in the other two cases (reference numbers II GSK 719/20 and II GSK 720/20), the Voivodeship Administrative Court dismissed the appeals against the decision of the Chief Pharmaceutical Inspector refusing to change the permit to operate a pharmacy and introducing another person. The Supreme Administrative Court overturned the contested judgments of the Voivodeship Administrative Court in three cases and upheld them in the remaining two cases. The commentary on the five judgments of the Supreme Administrative Court is approving.

ECtHR judgment in Medvid v. Ukraine in the context of life imprisonment reform

The article analyzes the judgment of the European Court of Human Rights in the case of Medvid v. Ukraine. In this judgment, the ECtHR assessed the mechanism for reviewing life imprisonment introduced in Ukraine.The author examines the reform of life imprisonment in Ukraine, the mechanism for commutation of life imprisonment and parole of this sentence both introduced in 2022, as well as an assessment of the reform by scholars, human rights organizations, and international institutions.The author highlights the ECHR case law establishing the conditions for reviewing life sentences: transparency, predictability, and efficiency. The author analyzes the arguments of the applicant and the Government in the case of Medvid v. Ukraine regarding the compliance of Ukrainian legislation with these conditions and Article 3 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. It is stated that the ECtHR has recognized the new mechanism for reviewing life imprisonment as providing a realistic possibility of release. The author highlights the key arguments of the Court in favour of this decision: clear time limits for reducing the sentence, objective assessment criteria, judicial review of decisions made by the prison administration, and the possibility of further rehabilitation. At the same time, the author notes the problem of a long period of uncertainty before the final implementation of the mechanism, which constitutes a violation of Article 3 of the ECHR.The author also notes the impact of this decision on further legal regulation and law enforcement practice in terms of life imprisonment review.

"Words matter": Judicial discourse on domestic violence in China

The discourse about domestic violence focuses on power and control by the abuser among the victim through different means, one of those is the language. Besides the domestic walls within the abuses are perpetrated, a more institutional and usually regulated language on family violence is traceable in the public discourse, specifically in the People’s Court judgments. In cases regarding family matters, especially divorce proceedings, Chinese judges do often use paternalistic and educational language towards the couple. The aim of this paper is to carry out a preliminary research and analysis on the judicial discourse about domestic violence in order to evaluate to what extent, how and whether these paternalistic and educational nuances emerge in the language and statements used by judges in those cases. This research will be carried out firstly by building a corpus of judgments on “domestic violence” issues, and then by comparing data and analysing the specific language used by the authority using digital tools.

CONCLUSION ON THE CONSTITUTIONALITY OF THE ISTANBUL CONVENTION OF THE LITHUANIAN CONSTITUTIONAL COURT: CONTEXT, REASONING, AND LEGAL CONSEQUENCES

Background: On 14 March 2024, the Lithuanian Constitutional Court issued a conclusion on the constitutionality of certain provisions of the Istanbul Convention, becoming the fourth constitutional court in Eastern and Central Europe to rule on this issue. Thus, this conclusion reflects a broader trend in the region. This article aims to analyse this conclusion and reveal its similarities and differences with decisions made by other constitutional courts in the region on the same matter. To achieve this goal, the following objectives are addressed: 1) to reveal the context in which the Lithuanian Parliament submitted an inquiry to the Constitutional Court on the constitutionality of the Convention and the issues raised in this inquiry; 2) to analyse the arguments of the Lithuanian Constitutional Court in this conclusion; and 3) to reveal the legal consequences of this conclusion and the possible impact of this conclusion on the ratification of this treaty in Lithuania. These issues are examined in the broader context of the judgments of other constitutional courts in the region on the constitutionality of the Istanbul Convention. Methods: To explore the theoretical and practical dimensions of the issue at hand, this article utilises a variety of methods. The document content analysis method was employed to examine relevant normative and jurisprudential research sources, focusing on identifying key terms and phrases within the text and linking them to existing statements in specialised literature. The paper relied heavily on systemic and logical analysis to examine nearly all issues discussed in the article. Comparative analysis was employed to compare the decisions of the constitutional courts on the constitutionality of the Istanbul Convention of other Eastern and Central European countries and the conclusion on this issue adopted by the Lithuanian Constitutional Court. The linguistic and teleological analysis methods were employed to clarify the content of provisions of the legal acts examined in this article, uncovering the true intentions of the creators of these provisions and the meaning of the concepts within these provisions. Results and conclusions: The article concludes that the Lithuanian Parliament's inquiry to the Lithuanian Constitutional Court regarding the constitutionality of the Istanbul Convention reflects a general trend in Eastern and Central Europe, as the Lithuanian Constitutional Court has been asked to address the constitutionality of essentially the same provisions of the Convention as other constitutional courts of the region. In assessing the constitutionality of the Convention's provisions, the Lithuanian Constitutional Court, like the constitutional courts of Latvia and Moldova, focused on the Convention's objective – eradicating violence against women and domestic violence by promoting gender equality. This approach has led to a similarity in the reasoning of these courts. The Lithuanian Constitutional Court became the third constitutional court in the region, which, like those in Latvia and Moldova, did not find the provisions of the Convention unconstitutional. The conclusion of the Lithuanian Constitutional Court has been met with mixed reactions in society, political, and academic circles; therefore, even after the conclusion regarding the constitutionality of the Istanbul Convention, this international treaty has still not been ratified in Lithuania. Nevertheless, the Constitutional Court is the only institution with the power to assess the compatibility of this international treaty with the constitutional provisions, so Parliament can no longer rely on the argument that this Convention is incompatible with the Constitution.

Individual liberty, safety and police liabilities under the mental health (care and treatment) act.

How should a society strike a balance between the objective of ensuring safety from dangers that may be posed by individuals believed to have a mental disorder and the deprivation of their liberty? How should police officers discharge their duties in apprehending such individuals with a view to conveying them to a medical practitioner at a psychiatric institution? These legal issues took centrestage in the Singapore High Court decision of Mah Kiat Seng v Attorney-General in which the apprehended individual brought claims in false imprisonment against a police officer. The decision examined the underlying purposes of the Singapore Mental Health (Care and Treatment) Act, the right of the person to be informed of the grounds of apprehension, the bases of the police officer's belief that the person posed a danger to himself or others, and the circumstances in which the police officers may be entitled to immunity from liability to civil or criminal proceedings. The High Court judgment led to statutory amendments to clarify police duties when apprehending such individuals and discussions about enhancements to police training and crisis support services for persons with mental illnesses. With reference to the law and/or policy in Australia and the UK, the paper critiques the judicial findings, the statutory amendments and policy alternatives.

Dying with Dignity: The Legal and Ethical Dimensions of Passive Euthanasia in India

In the timeless debate surrounding the complexities of life and death, euthanasia has emerged as a focal point of ethical and legal discourse. The term, originating from the Greek words “eu” (good) and “thanatos” (death), signifies a "good death" — a concept as ancient as the civilizations that first contemplated the dignity of human existence. The Roman historian Suetonius, in his seminal work De Vita Caesarum, recorded the peaceful death of Emperor Augustus in the arms of his wife, Livia, describing it as the emperor’s wish for a swift and painless end — a true “euthanasia” by his own words. From this account, the term began its journey, weaving through European thought and later permeating global discussions. Euthanasia, or mercy killing, addresses the poignant reality of terminal illness and incurable conditions. It is defined by the Oxford Dictionary as the "painless killing of a person suffering from an incurable illness or in an irreversible coma." Similarly, the Cambridge Dictionary describes it as the act of ending the life of someone who is gravely ill or elderly to alleviate their suffering. The legal status of euthanasia varies widely across nations. Many European countries, acknowledging the right to die with dignity as an extension of human rights, have enacted laws to preserve the dignity of those at the end of life. For example, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg have legalized euthanasia under strict conditions, placing Europe at the forefront of this global debate. In contrast, India navigates the issue through the lens of its judiciary. The Indian Constitution upholds the right to life as one of its most fundamental human rights. This right encompasses not only living with dignity but also dying with dignity. However, the country lacks specific legislation governing euthanasia, relying instead on landmark Supreme Court judgments. The evolution of this jurisprudence began with the P. Rathiram case in 1994 and culminated in the Common Cause case of 2018, where the court recognized passive euthanasia and advance directives under stringent safeguards. As the discourse on euthanasia continues to unfold, it reflects society's evolving relationship with the concepts of suffering, autonomy, and compassion. For Europe, with its rich legal traditions and philosophical heritage, the debate remains as much about upholding human dignity as it is about navigating the intricate balance between life, law, and morality. Euthanasia simply refers to the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve pain. This practice has been on since ancient times. Biblical records even show traces of the practice of euthanasia.

Discrepancy between the practitioner and the person signing the prescription: can panel doctors' associations reclaim fees? : Discussion of the judgement of the Social Court of Munich from November 13, 2023

Discrepancy between the practitioner and the person signing the prescription: can panel doctors' associations reclaim fees? : Discussion of the judgement of the Social Court of Munich from November 13, 2023

Judged by Robots: Preferences and Perceived Fairness of Algorithmic versus Human Punishments

Abstract Automated decision-making is increasingly prevalent, prompting discussions about AI replacing judges in court. This paper explores how machine-made sentencing decisions are perceived through an experimental study using a public good game with punishment. The study examines preferences for human versus automated punishers and the perceived fairness of penalties. Results indicate that rule violators prefer algorithmic punishment when penalty severity is uncertain and violations are significant. While human judges are typically reluctant to delegate, they are more likely to do this when they do not have discretion over the sanction level. Fairness perceptions are similar for both humans and algorithms, except when human judges choose a less severe penalty, which enhances perceived fairness.

The Concept of the Methods of Proof

The article discusses the question of the methods of proof, as an important institute of the criminal procedure. On the basis of research about scientific studies and court judgments are discovered their main characteristics, as the only tool of the collection of evidence. On this ground, conclusions were drawn about the cognitive and documenting nature of the methods of proof, their general purpose, and legal nature. All this served as a reason for the presentation of a scientific definition and some recommendations.

Right to Privacy as a Fundamental Right in India: Evolution, Challenges, and the Impact of Digitalization

The right to privacy has emerged as a cornerstone of individual autonomy and dignity in contemporary India, particularly in the digital age. Historically under-recognized within Indian jurisprudence, this right underwent significant transformation following the landmark Supreme Court judgment in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India (2017), which established privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. This paper explores the evolution of privacy as a legal and constitutional principle in India, tracing its development from early judgments such as Kharak Singh v. State of U.P. and Gobind v. State of M.P. to the pivotal Puttaswamy case. It examines the growing challenges posed by digitalization, including data privacy concerns, mass surveillance, and the ethical implications of emerging technologies like facial recognition. Additionally, the paper discusses the interplay between privacy rights and regulatory efforts such as the proposed Personal Data Protection Bill, reflecting on the need for robust frameworks to safeguard individual freedoms while promoting innovation and security. This research underscores the importance of a balanced approach in ensuring that privacy rights keep pace with technological advancements, emphasizing the role of civil society and judicial oversight in shaping India's privacy landscape. As the digital realm expands, this study highlights the ongoing need to reconcile individual rights with collective interests in the pursuit of a free and equitable society.

Vicarious Liability Restricted for Intentional Torts in English Law: Trustees of the Barry Congregation of Jehovah’s Witnesses v BXB

Abstract Trustees of the Barry Congregation of Jehovah’s Witnesses v BXB, a sexual abuse case, is the latest UK Supreme Court judgment on vicarious liability. This case note is critical of the substantive judgment, as well as the court’s method of arriving at it. The case note argues that the Supreme Court allowed the appeal on tenuous grounds. Further, the practical effect of the judgment is unwelcome. As a result of this case, it will be harder for survivors of sexual abuse to demonstrate vicarious liability because they will find it difficult to show a naturally close connection between intentional torts and authorised employment activities. Lastly, the case note criticises the Supreme Court’s treatment of the facts and the language it used.

Constitutional Implementation of Affirmative Action Policies in India

Abstract India is home to a comprehensive affirmative action program that reserves a fraction of positions at governmental institutions for various disadvantaged groups. While there is a Supreme Court-endorsed mechanism to implement these reservation policies when all positions are identical, courts have refrained from endorsing explicit mechanisms when positions are heterogeneous. This lacuna has resulted in widespread adoption of unconstitutional mechanisms, countless lawsuits, and inconsistent court rulings. By formulating mandates from the landmark Supreme Court judgment Saurav Yadav vs The State of U.P. (2020) as technical axioms, we show that the 2SMH-DA mechanism is uniquely suited to overcome these challenges.

Analysis of Report Findings in the Examination of Handwriting: A Vantage Perspective of a Forensic Scientist

This article explores and analyses the forensic handwriting and signatures examination findings with a view to determine its validity, reliability and the conformance to the legal requirements as outlined by the Criminal Procedure Act (Act 51 of 1977) of South Africa, hereafter referred to as the CPA. The forensic examination of handwriting and signatures is the mandate of the Questioned Documents Section (QDS) of the Forensic Science Laboratory (FSL), Division: Detectives and Forensic Services of the South African Police Services (SAPS). The CPA stipulates the requirements with which an affidavit or certificate (also referred to as forensic report) is required to comply with in terms of the law. As a legal entity, the QDS, which is responsible for the examination of handwriting and signatures, is obliged to abide by the requirements of the law in order for the reports produced by the examiners to meet and pass the legal scrutiny in a court. Handwriting and signatures examination findings play a crucial role in the administration of justice during the court proceedings, and other forums such as the departmental trials, commission of enquiries, and disciplinary hearings. It is for this reason that its validity, reliability, and conformance to the law should be beyond any shadow of doubt. In this research article, the relevant documentary sources are perused, and analysed to provide context into the research topic and assist in answering the research questions. These documentary sources include the CPA, Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) on examination of handwriting and signatures (QDS0028P of 2024), published research articles, and books written by revered authorities in the field of forensic science and law. Methodological approach: This research article makes use of the qualitative research strategy to collect data that is used to highlight the current state of affairs in the forensic examination of handwriting and signatures by the QDS in South Africa. Practical experiences and data obtained from the actual forensic reports, SOPs, and relevant policies are used to provide the factual state of affairs and to highlight the strengths and the weaknesses in the current state of affairs. This research study is relevant because it deals with the current phenomenon that is in play as part of the Criminal Justice System (CJS) in South Africa. The examination of handwriting and signatures has a direct impact in the administration of justice as judges and magistrates often consider forensic reports pertaining to the examination of handwriting and signatures in their court judgement. It is based on this backdrop that this research study is important and relevant to assist in uplifting the standard of forensic reports, and to ensure that compliance to the legal requirements is not compromised. In addition, this study highlights arears that need to be improved and provides relevant and practical recommendations aimed at addressing the identified deficiencies. In addition, this research article will provide a framework for the Forensic Science Laboratory (FSL), in particular the QDS, to draw council from the research findings and recommendations to best align the forensic reports. Furthermore, FSL may utilise this article as the basis for further engagement on the subject, and to ensure that compliance to the legal requirements is not compromised. The judiciary, the academics, and the public in general (both local and international) will have insight of the forensic report and its validity, reliability, and conformance to the law in South Africa.

Illegal drugs and socio-economic changes in a new pivotal region: a court judgements perspective

This study adopts an integrative approach, combining quantitative and quantitative analysis based on Court judgements to uncover trends, dynamics and projections in the illegal drug trade. A quantitative analysis offers insight into drug specialisations. A Computer-Assisted Qualitative Document Analysis Software unveils socio-economic changes in a newly pivotal Italian region for international drug trade. The analysis highlights the intricate complexities of this underground activity and assesses the role of organised crime groups, shifts in criminal activities, and the emergence of complementary profitable crimes. The study offers a novel understanding of the multi-faceted nature of the drug trade, its impact on society, and its connection with other types of crimes, empowering policymakers to make evidence-based decisions on prevention and treatment policies.

The Karasjok Supreme Court Judgment – and Its Significance for the Legal Survey in Finnmark

The Karasjok judgment was pronounced by the Supreme Court of Norway on 31 May 2024. By a narrow majority (6 to 5), the Supreme Court concluded that neither the population of the municipality of Karasjok as a whole, nor the Sámi part of it, have property rights to outlying fields in the municipality, as the landownership belongs to the Finnmark Estate (Finnmarkseiendommen/FeFo). The Supreme Court thus set aside the Finnmark Land Tribunal’s judgment, in which the conclusion was that the population’s property rights were established through immemorial usage. In this paper, I discuss the significance of this Grand Chamber judgment for the upcoming legal survey, including which scenarios can be expected.

What is the ownership of trust property in China? Empirical research over court judgments from 2001 to 2023

The ownership of trust property is a debatable issue in China due to the ambiguity of the Chinese Trust Law, and there are several relevant theories. In 2019, the Supreme People’s Court of China issued the Minutes of the National Conference on Civil and Commercial Trials which emphasized the absolute independence of trust property in China, that is different from traditional trust property theories. This could be summarized as a new theory of “Absolutely Independent Trust Property” which is, in the duration of trust, trust property is absolutely separated from the inherent property of settlors, trustees and beneficiaries. In China, court judgments play a significant social governance role in making policies and clarifying ambiguous legal rules. Therefore, it is necessary to test the new theory through empirical research of court judgments for advancing trust legal theories and improving relevant rules. Based on the approach of “practical reasoning”, it is assumed that, in China, the theory of “Absolutely Independent Trust Property” is applied in judicial practice. Based on the research of 252 Chinese court judgments related to trust property ownership from 2001 to 2023, the “Absolutely Independent Trust Property” theory is verified to some extent, especially after 2019, and some consensus on the nature of trust property has been formed in judicial practice. However, there still exists confusion and contradiction regarding trust property ownership in China, causing practical challenges to citizens’ constitutional property rights and violating the “Morality of Law” theory. In practice, to solve the problems caused by the unclear ownership of trust property, the Chinese government has adopted several systems regarding trust property, however, there still exits some problems. Chinese Trust Law will be revised soon, it is supposed to clarify the ownership of trust property. At the same time, more supportive and applicable laws and regulations should be issued to improve the trust registration system and trust property registration system. Moreover, the rule of trust taxation and a complete trust taxation system should be established in China.

The Arbitration Agreement from the Perspective of Qatari Law

Abstract The arbitration agreement is the first stage of arbitration and the basis of the commitment of the parties to an arbitration. Arbitration is consensual by nature and cannot proceed without such an agreement. If there is no agreement to arbitrate, the disputing parties have no choice but to resort to the state courts to resolve their dispute. In this regard, the importance of the arbitration agreement becomes evident, as it requires several formal and substantive conditions for it to be valid. The consequences of the validity or otherwise of the arbitration agreement may include lack of jurisdiction, the non-extension of the arbitration agreement to third parties, and the ultimate invalidity of the arbitral award. Accordingly, this research will be dedicated to studying the arbitration agreement and its implications as provided by Qatar’s Arbitration Law No. 2 of 2017. The study will also analyze court judgments related to this agreement and its implications, both within Qatar and in other Middle-Eastern states that have adopted the uncitral Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration.

Newly-imported Car Re-exported and Return of Consumption Tax: A Commentary on the Supreme Administrative Court Judgment of Case Y112 Pan-Chi No.537

Newly-imported Car Re-exported and Return of Consumption Tax: A Commentary on the Supreme Administrative Court Judgment of Case Y112 Pan-Chi No.537