Jordan Rift Valley Research Articles

Tryps-IN: A streamlined palaeoproteomics workflow enables ZooMS analysis of 10,000-year-old petrous bones from Jordan rift-valley

Poor preservation of collagen in dry and/or arid environments has hindered the application of Zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry (ZooMS) analysis in many regions of the world. As a result, many zooarchaeological investigations have relied exclusively on morphological assessment of fragmentary remains due to the inadequate preservation of biomolecules. The climatic conditions of Southwest Asia include extreme temperature fluctuations unconducive to preservation of proteins and DNA. We performed zooarchaeological analysis of remains from the 10,000-year-old site of Shkārat Msaied in Jordan and sub-sampled twenty-eight petrous bones, the hardest bone in the mammalian skeleton, for species identification by ZooMS. Using an unconventional and simplified extraction protocol we call Tryps-IN, in which digestion was performed without removal of the demineralising EDTA, we taxonomically identified several fragments, outperforming an established ZooMS workflow. A subset of identifications was subsequently confirmed using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) protein sequencing. The new methodology presented here opens the possibility of further bioarchaeological investigation of other fragmentary faunal assemblages within this region of archaeological significance.

Integration of GIS and remote sensing to derive spatially continuous thermal comfort and degree days across the populated areas in Jordan.

The widespread availability of high-resolution digital elevation data and high computational capabilities, along with GIS tools, has revolutionized big data processing, management, and interpolation. The present investigation generates high spatial resolution maps of thermal comfort levels, heating (HDD), and cooling (CDD) degree days across the populated areas in Jordan. Results show that areas having indoor apparent temperature (IAT) of 26°C or above, which represents warm/hot conditions on this thermal index, cover a large portion of the study area during July and August. This thermal zone encompasses a large cluster of the major urban centers in the country. For instance, Amman, Zarqa, and Irbid, which host more than 80% of the population of the country, experience 13, 14, and 19h of warm to very warm conditions during July and August, demonstrating that cooling needs are required to bring about thermal comfort for dwellings and office buildings.Heavy cooling loads, 1700-2000 CDDs, are restricted to the Jordan Rift Valley (JRV) and other small, low-level urban centers. With the exception of the JRV, the populated areas in the country experience cold to very cold conditions during the three coldest months, December through February. Very cold conditions in winter, IAT ≤ 8°C, span more than 13-14h of the diurnal cycle in most urban centers. The HDD range from values close to zero along the JRV to ⁓1900 in the southern mountains. Heating loads for dwellings and office buildings are very demanding and represent a pressing financial challenge to bring about thermal comfort to homes and public buildings during winter. The present procedure can be integrated with auxiliary data within a GIS environment to investigate numerous climatological, environmental, and site suitability issues. The present procedure can be used for operational purposes over territorial or regional scales for a wide range of applications.

Understanding summer wind systems over the eastern Mediterranean in a high‐resolution climate simulation

AbstractRegional and local wind systems are often complex, particularly near coastal areas with a highly variable orography. Thus, the realistic representation of regional wind systems in weather and climate models is of strong relevance. Here, we evaluate the ability of a 13‐year convection‐permitting climate simulation in reproducing the interaction of several regional summer wind systems over the complex orography in the eastern Mediterranean region. The COSMO‐CLM simulations are driven by hourly ERA‐5 reanalysis and have a spatial resolution of 2.8 and 7.0 km. The simulated near‐surface wind fields are compared with unique very high‐resolution wind observations collected within the “Dead Sea Research Venue” project (DESERVE) and data from the Israel Meteorological Service synop network. The high‐resolution COSMO‐CLM simulations largely reproduce the main characteristics of the regional wind systems (Mediterranean and Dead Sea breeze, slope winds in the Judean Mountains and winds along the Jordan Rift valley), whereas ERA‐5 is only able to represent the Mediterranean Sea breeze. The high‐resolution simulations substantially improve the representation of regional winds, particularly over complex orography. Indeed, the 2.8 km simulation outperforms the 7.0 km run, on of the days. Two mid‐July 2015 case studies show that only the simulation can realistically simulate the penetration of the Mediterranean Sea Breeze into the Jordan Rift valley and complex interactions with other wind systems like the Dead Sea breeze. Our results may have profound implications for regional weather and climate prediction since very high‐resolution information seems to be necessary to reproduce the main summertime climatic features in this region. We envisage that such simulations may also be required at other regions with complex orography.

Site of Jesus Baptism: From Discovery to World List Heritage

The Baptism Site “Bethany beyond the Jordan” (Al-Maghtas) is located in the Jordan RiftValley, north of the Dead Sea between two major sites Jerusalem to the west, and Mount Nebo to the east. The site was discovered during 1996,excavations revealed the presenceof threedistinct archaeological areas on the eastern bank of Jordan River, first,Tell al-Kharrar, also known as Jabal Mar Elias (Elijahs Hill) second, the area of the Monastery with its Large Pool, and third,Churches of St. John the Baptist. “Bethany beyond the Jordan” is of immense religious significance to the majority of denominations of Christian faith all over the world, who have accepted this site with its architectural remains and arts as the location where Jesus of Nazareth was baptized by John the Baptist. This reference encouraged generations of monks, hermits, pilgrims, priests and believers to reside in and visit the site, and to leave behind testimonies of their devotion and religious activities, dating to between the 1st and the 18th century AD.At present, the site has regained a popular status as pilgrimage destination for Christians, who continue to engage in baptism rituals on site. The site has gained the recognition of various churches around the world as World List Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2015 and considered as the actual site where early believers formed the early community of Christianity. The recovered architectural remains such as churches,mosaic floors,caves, andwater system,represent a majorcomplex built during Byzantine Period to commemorate sacred events for early believes.Since the excavations completed during 2002,the site has been extensively developed by the joint ofJordan Ministry of Tourism and Department ofAntiquities, but sensitively so - visitor numbers are controlled and the Visitors' Centre has been located at some distance from the site in an effort to preserve its sanctity. Other facilities include a restaurant, parking, and new churches werebuilt in the Baptism Sitefor praying.

A Remote Sensing and GIS Approach for Prioritization of Wadi Shueib Mini-Watersheds (Central Jordan) Based on Morphometric and Soil Erosion Susceptibility Analysis

Recently watershed prioritization has become a pragmatic approach for watershed management and natural resources development. Wadi Shueib is a Jordan Rift valley and covers an area of 177.8 km2. The upper catchment is of dry Mediterranean climate, whereas the lower part is arid. The drainage network is sub-dendritic pattern, with a trellis pattern developed due to the influence of W. Shueib structure. Fourteen mini-watersheds were delineated and designated as (MW 1 to MW 14) for prioritization purposes. Morphometric analysis, and soil erosion susceptibility analysis were conducted, and their values were calculated for each mini-watersheds. Based on value/relationship with erodibility, different prioritization ranks were ascribed following the computation of compound factors. Based on morphometric and soil erosion susceptibility analysis, and the resultant ranks, the mini-watersheds have been classified into four categories in relation to their priority for soil conservation measures: very high, high, moderate, and low. It is found that 64.3% of the 3rd order mini-watersheds are classified in the categories of very high and high priority. Based on soil erosion susceptibility analysis, three mini-watersheds are of very high priority and three are of high priority. The integration of morphometric and soil erosion susceptibility methods shows that mini-watersheds no.2 and no.3 are common mini-watersheds, and can be classified in the class of moderate and low priority respectively. By contrast, two mini-watersheds (no.8 and no.13) are categorized in the class of high priority based on morphometric analysis, and are classified in the category of very high priority based on soil erosion susceptibility analysis. Similarly, mini-watershed no.14 can be placed in the category of very high priority based on morphometric analysis, and ranks in the category of high priority based on soil erosion susceptibility analysis. With reference to the integration of the two methods of prioritization, it can be concluded that most of the mini-watersheds can be categorized in the classes moderate, high, and very high priority. Consequently, the entire W. Shueib watershed must be prioritized for soil and water conservation to ensure future sustainable agriculture and development of natural resources.

An observational study of the summer Mediterranean Sea breeze front penetration into the complex topography of the Jordan Rift Valley

The Mediterranean summer sea breeze front (SBF) climatic features of penetration into the complex topography of the Jordan Rift Valley (JRV) were investigated. It was shown that the SBF penetration into the JRV occurs in a well-defined chronological order from north to south. One exception to this general rule is the breeze penetration of Sdom, which occurs after it has penetrated the Arava which is located further south, probably due to the micro-climatic effect of the Dead Sea. It was also noted that the breeze increases the local specific humidity as it reaches the JRV in spite of significant temperature increases. The temperature reaches its daily peak 2 to 3 h later in the southern valley compared to the northern valley and is suggested to be due to the later SBF penetration and the valley structure. The pre-SBF line features in the JRV are described.

Palynological investigations at the Middle Palaeolithic site of Nahal Mahanayeem Outlet, Israel

A detailed palynological sequence of the late Middle Palaeolithic (MP) open-air site Nahal Mahanayeem Outlet (NMO), northern Jordan Rift Valley, Israel, dated to ca. 65–51 ka, constitutes a rare case of a south Levantine archaeo-palynological study for this period. The sequence is characterized by relatively high Arboreal Pollen (AP) ratios, comparable to humid fluctuations in the near-by Hula cores. The pollen spectra represent a Mediterranean maquis with Quercus calliprinos (Palestine oak), Quercus ithaburensis (Mt. Tabor oak), Pistacia sp. (pistachio), Pinus halepensis (Aleppo pine), and Olea europaea (wild olive) as the main tree taxa. Among the Non Arboreal Pollen (NAP) the dominant families are Poaceae (true grasses family), Chenopodiaceae (goosefoot family), Apiaceae (parsley family) and Liliaceae (lily family), and the genera Artemisia (sagebrush) and Centaurea (centaury). Two humid fluctuations with higher AP ratios, separated by a somewhat drier one, seem to emerge. The earlier humid fluctuation represents a cooler climate as indicated by the occurrence of Cedrus libani (Lebanon cedar), Abies (fir), and Alnus (alder) pollen. Altogether, the palynological data suggest wet habitats near the site in a rather humid period, when a Mediterranean maquis was widespread on the mountains surrounding the valley, with some minor fluctuations in humidity and temperature. Results of the current study fit those of a previous study of the Hula Basin for roughly the same time period. They further provide valuable details and a unique palaeoenvironmental reconstruction specifically related to the occupation period of NMO. Given the postulated short-term nature of its human occupation, the palynological sequence may represent a longer period of accumulation, extending before, during and after human presence at the site, with short human habitation spell/s incorporated within the sequence. The unique preservation of rich and diverse micro-botanical (pollen) and macro-botanical (wood, bark, seeds and fruits) assemblages at the site further contributes to the comprehensive reconstruction of a variety of biotopes exploited by the inhabitants of the site, both in the vicinity and further afield.

THE GENUS NITOCRA BOECK (COPEPODA HARPACTICOIDA) IN THE JORDAN RIFT VALLEY

ABSTRACT Four species of the genus Nitocra Boeck are reported from the waters of the Jordan system. Nitocra incerta (Richard) b considered as a species independent from Nitocra hibernica (Brady) on the basis of biometrical considerations and on the ecological segregation of the two species in the Jordan valley. Nitocra balnearia n.sp. is described from the mineral spring of Hamei Zohar, on the shores of the Dead Sea, and is related to Nitocra spinipes Boeck. Nitocra lacustris Schmankewitsch is reported from the interstices of the gravelly supralittoral of lake Tiberias. Some zoogeographical considerations are presented, based on the distribution of Nitocra in the Jordan Rift valley.

Spatial variability of environmental isotope and chemical content of precipitation in Jordan and evidence of slight change in climate

The spatial variability of the δ18O and δD compositions of rain is attributed to variations in amount of precipitation (PPT), altitude effect, and air masses originating from different sources. Air masses that enter the area passing the Mediterranean Sea result in higher d-excess. The cold and dry continental air masses originating from the European continent come in contact with the warm Mediterranean Sea water, resulting in rapid evaporation and large scale convergence. The low d-excess value is less than 16 ‰ and associated with air masses that cross over the North African continent and controlled by a local orographic effect. The change in isotopic composition of δ18O in PPT with altitude is −0.15 ‰ per 100 m. A statistical model confirms that a slight decrease in annual average precipitation has occurred since 1988 and attributed to a minor change in climate. The current level of tritium in rain corresponds to the average level of tritium in the atmosphere. Rabba station recorded a twofold higher tritium concentration in 1995 than the other stations, which may be from leakage from a nuclear station in Israel. The chemistry of rainwater demonstrates a wide range of salinity (100–600 mg/l). The lowest solute concentrations are found at high elevations, and the highest solute concentrations are found in the eastern desert and the Jordan Rift valley. The salinity of rain is affected by desert dust, aerosols, amounts of PPT, and the direction of rain fronts. The aerosols and windblown soil are the most prevailing as the country is confined between three seas and the outcrop surficial geology is mainly sedimentary rocks.

Drought analysis in Jordan under current and future climates

Droughts have adverse socioeconomic, agricultural, and environmental impacts that can be reduced by assessing and forecasting drought behavior. The paper presents detailed analyses of both meteorological and vegetative droughts over the period from 1970 to 2005. Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) have been used to quantify drought according to severity, magnitude and spatial distribution at the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. Results suggest that the country faced during the past 35 years frequent non-uniform drought periods in an irregular repetitive manner. Drought severity, magnitudes and life span increased with time from normal to extreme levels especially at last decade reaching magnitudes of more than 4. Generated NDVI maps spatial analyses estimate crop-area percentage damage due to severe and extremely severe drought events occurred during October, December, and February of 2000 to be about 10%, 45%, and 30%, respectively. In response to drought spatial extent, the paper suggest the presence of two drought types, local drought acting on one or more geographical climatic parts and national drought, of less common but more severe, that extend over the whole country. Droughts in Jordan act intensively during January, February and March and tend to shift position with time by alternative migrations from southern desert parts to northern desert parts and from the eastern desert parts to highlands and Jordan Rift Valley (JRV) at the west. The paper also investigates the potential use of Global Climate Model’s (GCM) to forecast future drought events from 2010 till 2040. Tukey HSD test indicates that ECHAM5OM GCM is capable to predicted rainfall variation at the country and suggests future droughts to become more intensive at the northern and southern desserts with 15% rainfall reduction factor, followed by 10% reduction at the JRV, and 5% at the highlands.

Radioactivity concentrations in soil and vegetables from the northern Jordan Rift Valley and the corresponding dose estimates

The Jordan Rift Valley (JRV) is considered the food bowl of Jordan, especially during the winter season. In this study, soil and vegetable samples collected from greenhouses in the northern JRV were analysed for their radioactive content. The activity concentrations of (238)U, (235)U, (232)Th, (226)Ra, (137)Cs and (40)K in soil were found to be (+/-SD) 33 +/- 12, 2.2 +/- 0.7, 11.2 +/- 3.3, 40.5 +/- 15.5, 3.5 +/- 1.3 and 156.0 +/- 46.6 (Bq kg(-1)), respectively. In vegetables, the activity concentration of (40)K was found in the range of 698-1439 Bq kg(-1), while those of (226)Ra and (228)Ra were found to be in the range of <0.61-2.56 and <0.69-3.35 Bq kg(-1), respectively. Transfer factors for (40)K were found to be high and ranged from 5 to 8, while those for (226)Ra and (228)Ra were found to be from <0.01 to 0.07 and from <0.09 to 0.42, respectively. The calculated external annual effective dose is found to be within the worldwide range.

Relationship between the origin of precipitation in the Jordan Rift valley and their geochemical composition

Rainwater was sampled during seven winters at eight sites along the Jordan Rift valley in Israel. The study area is divided into two regions: the northern part located between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea and the southern part between the Dead Sea and the Dead Sea–Red Sea water divide line in the Arava valley. The Dead Sea region is considered as a desert, the northern part of the study area is semidesert whereas the southern region is considered as extreme desert. Good agreement was found between the chemical and isotopic composition of rainwater its sources and air mass trajectories. In the arid areas, the contribution of salts was mainly from local sources (of up to 500 Km in diameter). Significant chemical divergence was found between rainwater deriving from marine air masses characterized by NaCl enrichment and rainwater deriving from continental air masses which are mainly characterized by Ca‐carbonate enrichment. Six main marine and continental air mass trajectories were defined, i.e., northern, northwestern, western, southwestern, eastern and local. The northern air mass trajectories contribute more salts than the southwestern air mass trajectories which exhibit the lowest rainwater salinities. The western trajectory is exclusively marine originating from the Mediterranean, while the eastern trajectory is exclusively continental and originates in the Arabian Desert. Rainwater isotopes revealed three chemically differing systems. The western marine trajectories reflect chemical setting associated with East Mediterranean Meteoric Water Line system; the continental air masses are mainly associated with the Mean Meteoric Water Line system; and whenever the eastern component is significant, a Local Meteoric Water Line prevails.

Effect of irrigation water on agricultural soil in Jordan valley: An example from arid area conditions

In Jordan, water rather than land is the determining factor for increasing the size and the productivity of the irrigated areas. Traditional surface irrigation is the general practice and the farmers themselves have been managing their water in terms of distribution and scheduling. The major developments in irrigation started in the 1950s, aiming at integrated rural development of the Jordan Valley, which would utilize Jordan's share of the water resources of the Jordan River System. Currently, irrigation is practiced in two main areas: the Jordan rift valley (JRV) and the Upland. The soil characteristics are subject to continuous changes based on a number of environmental factors. Many types of soil play a large part in classifying the plants into environmental groups. The macronutrients (N, P, K) and some of the heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn) have been investigated in soil profiles irrigated by different water qualities. Two agricultural areas were selected for this purpose; one irrigated with fresh water from the Yarmouk River and the other irrigated with treated wastewater from King Talal Dam. In all farms, three trenches (inlet, middle and outlet of the row) were dug in the irrigated area, while in the non-irrigated area one trench was dug as a control. Each trench was 60 cm wide and 60 cm deep. Nine samples from each trench were collected at 20 cm intervals horizontally and vertically, making a total of 486 samples from all farms and control points. The results showed that the concentrations of the heavy metals in the soils from the selected farms lie within the accepted values. The results indicate that there are no adverse impacts of irrigation water for agricultural practices. It was also found that there was an increase in the concentration of nitrogen, potassium and phosphate in most of the selected farms, which reflects the extensive use of fertilizers. An awareness program is highly recommended in order to draw the attention of farmers to this serious problem.

Palaeoenvironment of the Acheulian Gesher Benot Ya’aqov Pleistocene lacustrine strata, Northern Israel––lithology, ostracod assemblages and ostracod shell geochemistry

The Acheulian archaeological site Gesher Benot Ya’aqov (GBY) is located along the shoreline of a Pleistocene Lake, the GBY Lake, within the Jordan Rift valley. The uniqueness of the site is expressed in its complex sedimentary sequence, rich fossil assemblages, and in the first appearance of lithic technologies not previously seen in Eurasia. The site is reliably dated at the Matuyama–Brunhes geomagnetic polarity chron boundary (∼780 kA), which occurs within the lake sediments. The sedimentary sequence at GBY exhibits a pronounced cyclicity. A single first order cycle begins with a lower conglomerate followed by lacustrine beds, overlain by an upper conglomerate that closes the cycle. Second-order cyclicity is apparent in shifts from littoral to deeper water facies, with five such cycles, identified within the first order cycle. The diatom and ostracod distributions indicate a freshwater–oligohaline environment of deposition for the lower part of the section and oligohaline–meio-mesohaline waters in the upper part of the section. In addition, the C and O isotopes and the Sr/Ca and Mg/Ca ratios of the ostracod ( Candona neglecta) shells exhibit three geochemical zones supporting the paleoecological biozonation. They reflect a cooler period for the lower part of the sequence (interval I), changing into warmer climate at the Matuyama–Brunhes boundary and upward (interval II). Further gradual temperature increase in the upper interval III caused the retraction and desiccation of the GBY Lake.

The artesian thermal groundwaters of northern Jordan: insights into their recharge history and age

The scarcity of water resources in Jordan imposes strategic difficulties for economic development and has been a basis for disputes with neighbouring countries. A welcomed discovery in the past decade is the occurrence of artesian thermal groundwaters at Mukhebeh in the lower Yarmouk valley, which produce over 40 × 106 m3 year−1 of fresh water. The principal resources occur in the upper B2 Formation (Campanian), a limestone overlain by confining marls of the B3 Formation (Maastrichtian). Additional resources are found near by along the eastern Jordan Rift Valley (JRV), in the underlying A7 limestone (Turonian).Groundwaters in the Mukhebeh (B2) wells are low salinity (500 mg l−1 TDS) Ca(Mg)-HCO3 waters with elevated HS− attributed to sulphate reduction driven by oxidation of aquifer-derived organic matter. The JRV (A7) groundwaters are similar to the B2 waters with the exception of higher Mg2+ and HCO3− attributed to dolomite dissolution and sulphate reduction. Groundwaters from JRV 1 and the Maqla spring at Mukhebeh are NaCl waters with a strong Ca(Mg)-HCO3 facies (900 to 1000 mg 1−1 TDS). The elevated temperatures of all groundwaters (30 to 54°C) can be attributed to heating along a local geothermal gradient of 2.5°C per 100 m. Departures from this gradient are due to vertical flow in fault zones and possibly to the local influence of an intrusion (MK-7).All groundwaters are characterized by a late Holocene (modern) stable isotope signature. Groundwaters from the high yielding upper B2 aquifer (MK wells) have a δ18O/δ2H composition demonstrating recharge in the B2 outcrop region, near and to the east of Irbid, within the Yarmouk River basin. Conversely, the deeper A7 aquifer groundwaters (JRV wells) are recharged at a lower elevation in the rift valley margin, where incised wadis have exposed these strata. The deepest Al to A6 strata (Magla spring and JRV 1 well) contain the isotopically most depleted groundwaters. Based on comparison with precipitation and phreatic groundwaters, recharge in the highest landscape of northern Jordan is likely, although a source of recharge from the northern Golan region of Syria cannot be excluded.All thermal waters are essentially 3H-free. Estimates of their mean subsurface residence times have been constrained on the basis of 14C inDIC Significant corrections have been made for 14C-dilution processes including carbonate dissolution, sulphate reduction and a tertiary process involving either incorporation of mantle CO2 or matrix exchange. All dilution processes were quantified on the basis of geochemical and 13C mass balance equations. Modelled ages show that recharge for most B2 and A7 groundwaters occurred during the late Holocene (recent to 5 ka BP).

Empirical site response evaluations: case studies in Israel

A closed-loop, time-efficient technique for site effect evaluation for seismic microzonation in urban areas is developed and implemented. It includes the following successive steps: microtremor measurements using a triangular array of three-component seismometers; estimation of the Nakamura horizontal-vertical spectral ratio, calculation of Rayleigh wave dispersion using the Aki spatial correlation method; inversion of the dispersion curve to determine a shear wave velocity model of the shallow subsurface; analytical computation of Rayleigh wave spectral ellipticity and 1-D SH transfer function for this model; and a comparison of empirical and analytical ratios and correction of the model if required. The technique has been tested at several locations in a number of towns near the active Jordan Rift valley. A reasonable agreement is obtained when comparing empirical spectral ratios and analytical transfer functions.

Turning desert to bloom: Israeli‐Jordanian peace proposals for the Jordan rift valley

This study examines the recent peace plans for the Jordan Rift Valley, located between Jordan and Israel. With the expansion of the peace process in the Middle East, a number of documents were prepared that included plans for the development of the Jordan Rift Valley. These include the peace treaty between Jordan and Israel; a peace plan prepared by Israel; a peace plan developed by Jordan; and a plan made by the World Bank for the development of the region. A central part of the study analyzes the general and specific features of these plans and how they would influence the development of this border region. Finally, the paper discusses the theoretical literature of transborder cooperation and compares the unfolding Jordan Rift Valley border region with other border regions around the world.

Seismic Engineering Ground Motion Maps for Jordan Employing Local Attenuation Relations

Using probabilistic seismic hazard analysis on the most recent earthquake catalog for Jordan and conterminous area and employing an empirically derived local peak ground acceleration (PGA) attenuation model for historical and 20th Century (macro-seismic and instrumental) events, PGA and Z-Coefficient regionalization maps are generated for the investigated region at 50,100 and 200 years exposure times with 90 percent probability of non-exceedance. Based on these representations a high risk zone centered on the Jaleel-Carmel fault is earmarked as the most probable seismogenic zone to host the next large or even major earthquake expected to occur within the Jordan rift valley.

The Huleh concession and Jewish settlement of the Huleh Valley, 1934–48

In 1934 Jewish interests acquired the Huleh concession to drain and reclaim Lake Huleh and its swamps in northern Galilee.' During the previous 20 years, when the concession was in Arab hands, no significant drainage work had been undertaken. The Palestine Land Development Company (PLDC) agreed to pay the former concessionaires, the Salam family, £191,974 to acquire their rights. The concession lay in the heart of the Huleh valley which covers an area of 177 square kilometres. The valley is encircled by higher ground on all sides: the Naftali ridge in the west, the Golan Heights in the east, a range of low hills in the north and the Rosh Pinna sill, a lava flow from the volcanic area of Golan, in the south. The Huleh plain, which is part of the Jordan rift valley, is 25 kilometres long and six to eight kilometres wide. While the concession area covered only a third of the Huleh valley (56,940.027 dunams), its drainage would benefit the entire region (see Map 1, p.855). Lake Huleh and its swamps were created by the basaltic Rosh Pinna sill which impeded the flow of the Jordan river. The Jordan, which had cut a steep gorge through this barrier, could carry away the summer flow of its tributaries entering the lake but could not cope with the frequent torrents of the winter rainy season. In winter the lake-level rose inundating an area seven to eight kilometres to the north. While the size and extent of the swamps varied from year to year, the lake and the permanent swamps between them covered a third of the valley; another third was subject to periodic flooding; and the land best suited to cultivation was located either on slightly higher ground on the northern edge of the valley or south of the lake where flooding did not occur because of steeper slopes and the absence of perennial streams. Drainage of the entire valley would be effected once the bed of the Jordan outlet was deepened over a stretch of about four kilometres south of the lake. In addition, water courses would need to be realigned, canals

Halite-clay interplay in the Israeli Messinian

The Mavqi'im Formation in Israel is the equivalent of the evaporite part of the Messinian stage (Upper Miocene). It is found in the subsurface in the offshore with eastward extensions into ancient buried channels in the coastal plain and in the Jordan Rift valley and in a few outcrops southwest of Lake Tiberias. Most of the anhydrite horizons can be used as correlation markers. Lateral facies changes between halite, anhydrite and shales can be traced. This is interpreted as contemporaneous sedimentation in giant marine salt ponds (halite and anhydrite) and in drowned desert valleys and/or salt-marsh coasts (shales with sabkha-like anhydrites). Another type of shale is that directly underflooring halite horizons. It is regarded as deep-water halite facies, in contrast with shallow-water facies where halite overlies gypsum and/or anhydrite. A “twofold bull's-eye model” is proposed, which assumes that either: (a) sedimentation of gypsum and halite was ‘separated in space’—i.e., gypsum was deposited in the part of the basin proximal to oceanic inlets or on shallow shelves, whereas halite was deposited in the central deep part of the basin or on its distal edge; or (b) sedimentation of gypsum and halite was not contemporaneous, or ‘separated in time’—i.e., in the deep parts of the basin gypsum precipitates were disintegrated by anaerobic bacteria which removed the sulfate. The lower limit of gypsum deposition is considered to be 200 m, which is the lower limit of the photic and wave zones. In the Israeli Messinian there is no difference between the clay minerals of marine and fluvial shales. Differentiation of marine shales from fluvial and mud flat shales is based on their geometry, i.e., thin persistent horizons spreading across the whole area versus thick shale lenses wedging out in 500–1000 m distances. Another consideration is the palynologic and microfauna remains: in the first case the cyst/pollen ratio may be as high as 100, whereas in the second pollen is dominant.