Joints Of Dogs Research Articles

A novel tibial tuberosity advancement technique with cranial implant fixation (TTA CF): a pilot study in sheep

BackgroundCranial cruciate ligament rupture is the most frequent orthopedic disorder in human and animals. An array of surgical techniques have been described to stabilize the stifle joint in dogs, including intraarticular stabilization, extraarticular stabilization, and tibial osteotomy techniques. Tibial plateau leveling osteotomy and tibial tuberosity advancement with a lot of modifications are the most common. In this study we report the possibility of fixing the novel titanium implant for tibial tuberosity advancement with two screws in a craniocaudal direction. The aim of our study was to improve the clinical benefit of the tibial tuberosity advancement surgical technique where an attempt was made to reduce the number of screws and obtain a strong implant fixation with minimal bone traumatization. This way of attachment allows to distribute the forces evenly on medial and lateral side of osteotomy gap.ResultsTibial tuberosity advancement with cranial implant fixation was performed in four sheep. Complete radiographic and clinical follow up was recorded. All four sheep had a complete osteotomy line healing at a mean of 10 weeks postoperative (range 8–12 weeks). None of the animals had osteotomy gap healing grades of poor. Minor complication included the minimally cracked Maquet hole on the postoperative radiographs, without displacement of the tibial crest which occurred in 2 sheep. Major complication grade 1, major complication grade 2 and catastrophic were not found.ConclusionsThe novel surgical technique for tibial tuberosity advancement with cranial implant fixation is technically comparable to the recent trend in tuberosity advancement techniques, where partial osteotomy of the cranial tibial tuberosity crest is performed. A cranial implant fixation allows to distribute the forces evenly on medial and lateral side of osteotomy gap, which may result in less number of major complications in dogs. A novel titanium implant decreases the tibial traumatisation by reducing the number of screws.

Luxação lateral de patela em um Poodle toy

Background: Luxating patella is one of the most frequent conditions of the stifle joint in dogs and it can evolve into a degenerative joint disease. The occurrence of the condition can be medial or lateral, unilateral or bilateral. Its origin can be traumatic or congenital and, additionally, it may undergo genetic and environmental influence. Lateral luxation is more common in large breed dogs, and it can rarely affect medium and small breeds, whilst medial luxation is more common in small breed dogs. The classification of patellar luxation comprises four grades, according to the patellar position, clinical signs and seriousness of the bone deformities found. The diagnosis is made based on the clinical evaluation, associated with a radiographic evaluation. The present study aims at describing a case of bilateral grade 3 lateral luxating patella in a Toy Poodle dog. Case: A five-month-old female Toy Poodle dog was presented for difficulty standing and claudication of hind limbs. Orthopedic evaluation revealed internal rotation of the stifle, claudication of hind limbs during walking and “jumps” during trotting, in addition to a lateral grade 3 luxating patella and slight restriction of the joint motion upon extension of the right and left hind limbs. Radiographic evaluation of both stifles evidenced an ectopic (lateral) position of the right and left patellas. The animal was referred to the surgery department, where it was submitted to surgical intervention of both stifles. A reduction of luxation in both stifles was achieved through medial arthrotomy, wedge recession trochleoplasty, lateral desmotomy and medial imbrication of the articular capsule techniques. Tramadol hydrochloride, dipyrone and meloxicam were prescribed as postoperative medication. Daily wound care, resting and mild walks using a lead were recommended for the animal. On the tenth postoperative day, the stitches were removed from the skin and the animal seemed to be in a good general state, using adequately its hind limbs when walking and trotting. Discussion: The medial form of the congenital patellar luxation is common both in large and small breeds. However, the lateral form is more common in large or giant breeds, differently to the findings of the present case, in which luxation occurred in a Toy Poodle. Surgery is recommended in animals with a luxating patella grade starting from 2, as even the smallest luxation grades may evolve into higher grades, causing functional inability of the limb and degenerative joint disease. Surgery was justified in this case, because the animal presented a grade 3 luxating patella. The decision on which technique should be used will depend on the luxating patella grade and on soft tissue compromise. The most recommended procedure is a combination of various techniques in the same articulation. In this case, the use of wedge recession trochleoplasty and medial imbrication of the articular capsule techniques was successful, as a few days after surgery the animal was able to walk adequately without presenting any instability of the patellas, thus improving its quality of life. Moreover, upon reaching adulthood, the animal maintained an adequate gait, without excessive patellar motion.

Technique of Tibial Tuberosity Transposition and Advancement (TTTA) With Use of TTA-Maquet Cage-Only in Dog

Background: The most common conditions that compromise the stifle joint in dogs are medial patellar luxation (MPL) and cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) rupture. Surgical procedures are usually indicated for the treatment of these diseases. One ordinary technique for the treatment of MPL is the tibial tuberosity transposition, and one prominent technique for CCL rupture is the tibial tuberosity advancement. These techniques can be associated in one surgical procedure called tibial tuberosity transposition and advancement (TTTA) for the simultaneous treatment of both stifle diseases. The aim of this study is to report the surgical treatment of a dog with MPL and CCL rupture affecting the same joint by the TTTA technique with the use of a TTA-Maquet cage-only.Case: A 3-year-old Pitbull dog weighing 39 kg was attended at Veterinary Hospital with a history of marked lameness in the left pelvic limb. The orthopedic examination showed positive results for cranial drawer motion and tibial compression tests, and a complete CCL rupture was diagnosed. The presence of patellar luxation was evaluated by manual pressure on the patella, and grade 3 of MPL was diagnosed. Both conditions were affecting the same stifle joint. In addition, survey radiographs of the affected joint were performed. Surgical treatment was indicated by the TTTA technique. Radiographic measurements were taken to calculate the cranial tibial tuberosity advancement by the tibial plateau and the common tangent methods, and a titanium TTA-Maquet cage-only of 10.5 x 20.0 mm was selected. Linear osteotomy was performed on the tibial tuberosity with the aid of an oscillating saw, based on the Maquet hole technique. The tibial tuberosity was carefully displaced cranially and the cage was inserted at the site of osteotomy. The cage ears were molded on the tibial surface and fixed with 2.4 mm self-tapping cortical screws. At the moment of the cage attachment to the tibial tuberosity, orthopedic washers of 2 mm wide were placed between the cranial ears of the cage and the tibial tuberosity, thus promoting a lateral transposition of the tibial tuberosity. The patient was maintained in the early postoperative period with Robert Jones bandage, and with antibiotic, analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs. On the second day after the procedure partial limb support with presence of mild lameness was observed. At three months postoperatively, the animal had no claudication and MPL was corrected. The radiographic examination showed the proper process of bone repair at the osteotomy site. In the clinical evaluation performed at one year after surgery the patient was in good condition without lameness and with proper limb support and muscular gain.Discussion: The studies that evaluated the association of tibial tuberosity transposition and tibial tuberosity advancement techniques (TTTA) for the simultaneous treatment of MPL and CCL rupture demonstrated that this is a viable and effective procedure. In this report, the accomplishment of tibial osteotomy based on the Maquet hole and the advancement of the tibial tuberosity with the TTA-Maquet cage-only allowed the dynamic stabilization of the CCL deficient stifle and the early use of the affected limb. In addition, the TTTA technique proved to be effective for the correction of grade 3 of MPL in a large dog, allowing adequate recovery of the limb function without complications during a one year evaluation period.

Ultrasonographic findings of shoulder teno-muscular structures in symptomatic and asymptomatic dogs.

B-mode sonographic evaluation of shoulder joint in dogs provides qualitative information concerning mainly tendon and muscles structures. Although the sonographic findings of tenomuscular lesions have been described previously, their frequency in symptomatic and asymptomatic patients has not been reported yet. Aim of the study was to describe and compare qualitative ultrasonographic findings of shoulder joint in clinically symptomatic and asymptomatic dogs and to speculate which lesions might be considered major responsible for lameness. Fifty-two dogs with shoulder lameness and 58 asymptomatic dogs (both with unremarkable radiographic findings) underwent ultrasonographic B-mode examination of the scapulohumeral joint. Lesions detected were recorded and statistically compared between groups. Significant differences between groups were observed for the number of ultrasonographic abnormalities detected and for fluid accumulation, biceps brachii tendon (BT) lesions and bone surface irregularities. Sonography was considered useful for the determination of lesions absence and for the detection of BT lesions, fluid accumulation, muscle lacerations and bone surface irregularities. The odds for symptomatic dogs were greater than for asymptomatic patients to ultrasonographically diagnose BT lesions, fluid accumulation and bone surface irregularities. Ultrasound has proven to be a useful tool in the evaluation of tenomusculoskeletal structures of shoulder in dogs with unremarkable radiographic findings. Our results suggest that ultrasonography is useful in the diagnosis of tendon abnormalities, fluid accumulation, muscle lacerations and bone surface irregularities as potential contributors to shoulder lameness in dogs.

Correlation between osteoarthritic changes in the stifle joint in dogs and the results of orthopedic, radiographic, ultrasonographic and arthroscopic examinations.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic, degenerative disease affecting the articular cartilage and subchondral bone that causes pain and inhibits movement. The stifle's joint fibrous capsule contains the synovial membrane, which produces cartilage nutrients. A ruptured cranial cruciate ligament injures the joint and produces OA. Osteoarthritis diagnosis starts with clinical radiographic and ultrasonographic tests, although the latter is not used very much in dog and cat clinics for this purpose. The objective of this study was to establish the correlation among the results of orthopedic, radiographic, ultrasonographic examinations and structural anatomical changes revealed by arthroscopic evaluation to diagnose stifle joint OA and determine risk factors in the dogs affected. Of 44 clinical cases of OA included in the study, 88.64% had ruptured of cranial cruciate ligaments. The correlation between synovial fluid effusion and osteophytosis was of 0.84. It was concluded that there is good diagnostic agreement between synovial fluid effusion and osteophytosis when dealing with stifle joint OA. Risk factors for dogs regarding the development of stifle joint OA included: ruptured cranial cruciate ligaments or patella luxation, female dogs and weight over 10kg.

Asymmetrical lumbosacral transitional vertebrae in dogs may promote asymmetrical hip joint development.

This study examines the relationship between the morphology of the lumbosacral transitional vertebra (LTV) and asymmetrical development of the hip joints in dogs. A total of 4000 dogs which had been consecutively scored for canine hip dysplasia were checked for the presence of a LTV. A LTV was noted in 138 dogs and classified depending on the morphology of the transverse processes and the degree of contact with the ilium. In dogs with an asymmetrical LTV, the hip joint was significantly more predisposed to subluxation and malformation on the side of the intermediate or sacral-like transverse process (p <0.01), on the side of the elevated pelvis (p <0.01), or when an asymmetrical LTV resulted in pelvic rotation on its long axis (p <0.01), whereas hip joint conformation was less affected on the side featuring a free transverse process (p <0.01). The results support our hypothesis that an asymmetrical LTV favours pelvic rotation over its long axis, resulting in inadequate femoral head coverage by the acetabulum on one side. Inadequate coverage of the femoral head favours subluxation, malformation of the hip joint, and secondary osteoarthritis. Asymmetrical hip conformation may therefore be the sequela of a LTV and mask or aggravate genetically induced canine hip dysplasia.

Effect of a calcaneo-tibial screw on medial and lateral stability of the canine tarsocrural joint ex vivo.

To evaluate the use of a temporary calcaneo-tibial screw for stabilization of the tarsocrural joint in dogs with surgically treated collateral ligament injury. The degree of varus and valgus laxity of the tarsocrural joint in various states of injury and stabilization was measured in paired cadaveric limbs of Greyhound dogs. The angle of varus or valgus laxity was calculated following simulated collateral ligament injury (long collateral ligament only, long and short collateral ligaments, and bilateral long and short collateral ligaments) and stabilization with a calcaneo-tibial screw. The joint was significantly more stable after placement of a calcaneo-tibial screw compared to limbs with any combination of injured collateral ligaments. There was not a significant difference between stability of the intact limb compared to the injured limb with calcaneo-tibial screw fixation. Calcaneo-tibial screw fixation appears to be an adequate method of stabilizing the tarsocrural joint following collateral ligament injury, and warrants clinical evaluation as a less expensive alternative to external skeletal fixation application. It is likely that this method would need to be supplemented with a cranial half cast to prevent screw failure during weight bearing.

CC chemokine ligand 2 and CXC chemokine ligand 8 as neutrophil chemoattractant factors in canine idiopathic polyarthritis

Canine idiopathic polyarthritis (IPA) is characterized by increased numbers of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) in the synovial fluid (SF). In humans, CC chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) and CXC chemokine ligand 8 (CXCL8) recruit monocytes and neutrophils, respectively, and are involved in various inflammatory disorders. The aim of this study was to assess the roles of these chemokines in driving PMNs infiltration into the joints of dogs with IPA. SF samples were collected from dogs with IPA (n=19) and healthy controls (n=8), and the concentrations of SF CCL2 and CXCL8 were determined by ELISA. Dogs with IPA had significantly higher concentrations of CCL2 (3316±2452pg/ml, mean±SD) and CXCL8 (3668±3879pg/ml) compared with the healthy controls (235±45pg/ml and <15.6pg/ml, respectively). Then, an in vitro chemotaxis assay was performed using a modified Boyden chamber (pore size: 3μm). SF from IPA dogs had a chemoattractant activity for PMNs that purified from the peripheral blood of a healthy dog. We subsequently found that combination treatment with MK-0812 (an antagonist of CCL2 receptor) and repertaxin (an antagonist of CXCL8 receptors) significantly inhibited the migration of PMNs to SF from IPA dogs. Thus, expression of the CCL2 receptor (chemokine (CC motif) receptor 2 (CCR2)) was examined using polymerase chain reaction and immunocytochemistry. Canine peripheral blood PMNs exhibited significantly higher CCR2 mRNA expression levels than those in monocytes. In addition, we observed strong CCR2 expression on PMNs obtained from healthy controls and IPA dogs, although mononuclear cells did not express CCR2. Taken together, the data suggest that CCL2 acts as a canine PMNs chemotactic factor as well as CXCL8 and both CCL2 and CXCL8 facilitate the infiltration of PMNs into the joints of dogs with IPA.

Evaluation of a Single Intra-Articular Injection of Autologous Protein Solution for Treatment of Osteoarthritis in a Canine Population.

To evaluate the safety and efficacy of an intra-articular injection of autologous protein solution (APS) for treatment of canine osteoarthritis (OA). Prospective, randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled pilot clinical trial. Client-owned dogs with single limb lameness because of OA in a stifle or elbow joint (n=21). Lame dogs, confirmed with OA by physical and lameness examination and imaging, were randomly assigned to control or treatment groups. Owners, blinded to treatment, scored pain (University of Pennsylvania Canine Brief Pain Inventory) and lameness severity (Hudson Visual Analogue Scale [HVAS]). Weight-bearing was assessed by kinetic gait analysis. Dogs were injected intra-articularly with APS (treatment group) or saline solution (control group). Evaluations were performed before injection, and 2 and 12 weeks post-injection. Compared to pretreatment values, APS treatment data showed a significant improvement in week 12 pain scores (improved 25.6% over baseline), lameness scores (improved 15% over baseline) and peak vertical force (PVF; N/kg; increased 14.9% of baseline), as well as vertical impulse (Ns/kg) and PVF normalized to stance time (N/kg/s). Control group dogs improved at week 2 in owner assigned indices, but not force plate values and had no significant improvement in scores or force plate values from pretreatment values at 12 weeks. APS injection reduced pain and lameness scores and increased weight-bearing associated with the OA-affected joint in dogs at 12 weeks providing preliminary evidence that APS therapy may be beneficial in the treatment of OA in dogs and supporting pursuit of additional studies.

Joint Ultrasonography of Goats Infected by the Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis Virus

Background: The most important form of caprine arthritis encephalitis virus in the goat is the arthritic, generally observed in animals over eight months of age. Differently in sheep, there is less arthritis incidence, affecting 2-3-year-old animals. The clinical alterations frequently affect goat joints, and an increase in the joint consistency and size is observed. The objective of the present study was to standardize the ultrasound technique to access joints in animals infected with the caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV), so that it can be a complimentary support tool for diagnosis and animal management.Materials, Methods &amp; Results: Animals were examined from farms located in the municipality of Teresina, state of Piauí, Brazil. For this, the M-Turbo, Sonosite Fujifilm ultrasonography apparatus was used, attached to a linear transducer with 10-13 MHz frequency. The ultrasound examination analyzed three regions: patella-humerus joint, carpal and tarsal joints. The patella-humerus joint was characterized by its concave convex surface. The surface of the head humerus was a fine hyperechoic line composed by the junction between the joint cartilage and the subcontinent bone. The sub patella muscle was visible and its fibers present a parallel and hypoechogenic pattern compared to bone tissue. A discreet muscle edge with echogenicity was observed separating the sub patella and supraspinatus muscles. The surface of the proximal and distal rows of the carpal bones was characterized by fine hyperechogenic lines that formed acoustic shadow. Regarding the bones of the tarsal joint, the surface of the central tarsal joint bone was observed centrally as a fine, hyperechogenic line. The third tarsal joint bone was visualized on the left side and was represented by a thick hyperechoic line, while the fourth tarsal joint bone was observed to the right with a hypoechogenic surface and both formed acoustic shadow.Discussion: Joint inflammation caused by other diseases, such as derived from bacteria of the Micoplasma genus can suggest similar semiological aspects and can present positive results for the joint clinical index. Studies carried out have established measurements of the joints of animals affected by various degrees of arthritis, where absolute values equal or less than 5.5 cm would be indicative of negative arthritis diagnosis, variations between 6.0 and 6.5 cm would be considered suspicious and when equal or greater than 7.0 cm they would be positive. From the anatomical point of view, ultrasound assessment of the joints of the normal animals showed a morphological pattern as observed in dogs, horses and humans. The loss of echogenicity, surface erosions and exposure of subchondral bone observed in goats infected with CAEV were also reported in dogs with patella-humerus osteochondrosis, by the presence of a cartilage flap seen radiographically, or even as cracks, characterized by a hyperechoic line parallel to the subchondral defect, in the ultrasonography examination. The lesions observed in the ultrasound examination showed various degrees of osteoarthritis, with the presence of sound hyperreflection, hyperechogenic areas, cartilage lesions with erosion of the subchondral bone and loss of anatomic limits, and these characteristics were described for the metacarpal phalangeal and metatarsal phalangeal joints of dogs submitted to routine radiographic examination. The ultrasound examination of the joints of normal goats and goats infected with caprine arthritis encephalitis virus allowed the comparative description of normal anatomy, evolution of joint and adjacent soft tissue lesions, generating valuable clinical and surgical information.

Evaluation of a distractor to increase joint space of the stifle joint in dogs: a cadaveric study.

To evaluate the technical feasibility and efficacy of a joint distraction technique to increase the stifle joint space and assess potential soft tissue damage due to the distraction. Twenty stifle joints of twelve canine cadavers without evidence of disease were radiographically evaluated by medio-lateral, cranio-caudal and varus-valgus stressed projections. Joint distraction was applied with loads from 40 N up to 200 N, and the joint space achieved was measured on radiographic images. Distraction plus distension with saline was subsequently applied and measured. Varus-valgus stressed projections were repeated after distraction to evaluate a potential increase in joint laxity. Distraction produced a significant increase of the joint space for most of the evaluated loads. Distraction plus distension produced a significant increase for most of the loads compared to the distraction alone. No ensuing joint laxity could be inferred from the post-distraction radiographic evaluation. Stifle distraction produces an increase of the joint space, which is wider when intra-articular saline is injected. This may be potentially useful for improving joint structure visualization and facilitating arthroscopic procedures, thus reducing the potential for iatrogenic damage to intra-articular structures. No soft tissue damage could be inferred by radiographic pre- and post-procedure comparison. Further clinical studies are required to evaluate potential neurovascular complications.

Evaluation of a joint distractor to facilitate arthroscopy of the hip joint in dogs.

To evaluate the technical feasibility and efficacy of a hip joint distraction technique, any potential ligamentous damage linked to the procedure, and the effect of joint venting on the maximum distraction achieved. Twenty hip joints from 11 canine cadavers were evaluated radiographically by standard and stressed projections. Joint distraction was applied with loads from 40 up to 200 N, in 40 N increments, and fluoroscopic images were obtained at each load. At 200 N, a needle was inserted into the joint to achieve a venting effect, and the space was measured again. Standard and stressed radiographs were performed to evaluate potential laxity changes. Distraction caused a significant increase in joint space at each load of distraction, although there were some variations. Joint venting produced a significant increase in joint space. A statistically significant difference in joint laxity evaluated radiographically before and after the procedure was recorded. Use of the distraction apparatus resulted in an increase in joint space. This could be useful for clinical situations where a larger joint space is required such as for arthroscopic procedures. However, loads in excess of 200 N may induce significant increases in joint laxity.

Application of a 3D printed customized implant for canine cruciate ligament treatment by tibial tuberosity advancement

Fabrication of customized implants based on patient bone defect characteristics is required for successful clinical application of bone tissue engineering. Recently a new surgical procedure, tibial tuberosity advancement (TTA), has been used to treat cranial cruciate ligament (CrCL) deficient stifle joints in dogs, which involves an osteotomy and the use of substitutes to restore the bone. However, limitations in the use of non-biodegradable implants have been reported. To overcome these limitations, this study presents the development of a bioceramic customized cage to treat a large domestic dog assigned for TTA treatment. A cage was designed using a suitable topology optimization methodology in order to maximize its permeability whilst maintaining the structural integrity, and was manufactured using low temperature 3D printing and implanted in a dog. The cage material and structure was adequately characterized prior to implantation and the in vivo response was carefully monitored regarding the biological response and patient limb function. The manufacturing process resulted in a cage composed of brushite, monetite and tricalcium phosphate, and a highly permeable porous morphology. An overall porosity of 59.2% was achieved by the combination of a microporosity of approximately 40% and a designed interconnected macropore network with pore sizes of 845 μm. The mechanical properties were in the range of the trabecular bone although limitations in the cage's reliability and capacity to absorb energy were identified. The dog's limb function was completely restored without patient lameness or any adverse complications and also the local biocompatibility and osteoconductivity were improved. Based on these observations it was possible to conclude that the successful design, fabrication and application of a customized cage for a dog CrCL treatment using a modified TTA technique is a promising method for the future fabrication of patient-specific bone implants, although clinical trials are required.

Evaluation of a joint distractor to facilitate arthroscopy of the tibio-tarsal joint in dogs

To evaluate the technical feasibility, efficacy and potential soft tissue damage of a joint distraction technique to facilitate arthroscopy of the tibio-tarsal joint and to test the effect of joint venting on the maximum distraction achieved. Twenty hocks were preliminarily evaluated radiographically by standard and stressed projections. Joint distraction was applied with loads from 40 N up to 200 N, in 40 N increments, and radiographic images were obtained at each load. The effect of joint venting by an intra-articular needle was evaluated at the maximum load. Standard and stressed radiographs were repeated to evaluate potential laxity changes. Joint distraction caused a significant increase in the joint space at each load of distraction except for the 40 to 80 N load increase. Joint venting produced a significant increase in the joint space. No increase of joint laxity could be inferred from the postdistraction radiographic evaluation. Hock distraction can be useful to facilitate arthroscopic procedures, increasing the joint space available for intra-articular manoeuvres. Further clinical studies are required to evaluate potential neurovascular complications.

TECHNIQUE FOR ULTRASOUND‐GUIDED INTRAARTICULAR CERVICAL ARTICULAR PROCESS INJECTION IN THE DOG

Ultrasound-guided intraarticular injection of cervical articular process joints is a well-established procedure in both humans and horses for neck pain resulting from osteoarthritis, but the technique has not been described in dogs. Aims of this study were to describe the ultrasonographic anatomy and landmarks for cervical articular process joint injections in the dog, develop a technique for articular process joint injections using these landmarks, and determine the accuracy of injections and factors that may influence it. Eleven canine cadavers were used and bilateral joint spaces from C2-3 to C7-T1 were injected under ultrasound guidance with a blue radiopaque solution. A computed tomographic scan was acquired following each injection, and an injection score was assigned and compared with other patient-specific factors. Of the 132 injections performed, 110 (83.3%) were intraarticular, 20 (15.1%) were periarticular within 5 mm, and 2 (1.5%) were periarticular beyond 5 mm from the joint. There was no significant difference in mean scores between dogs. Only C2-3 had a significantly lower mean score than any other joint. There was no significant correlation between injection score and any other factors measured. The transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae served as excellent ultrasonographic landmarks for identifying the cervical articular process joints in dogs regardless of the size of the dog or location along the vertebrae. Accuracy of ultrasound-guided intraarticular process joint injection was 83% in dogs and similar to published techniques in horses. Further studies are needed to examine the safety and efficacy of this procedure in live animals.

Articular Cartilage Lesions of the Patellofemoral Joint in Dogs With Naturally Occurring Cranial Cruciate Ligament Disease

To evaluate frequency, severity, and location of patellofemoral (PF) osteoarthritis (OA) in dogs with naturally occurring cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) disease. Cross-sectional observational study. Dogs (n = 40; stifles, 44). Stifle arthroscopic video recordings and radiographs were performed. Cartilage pathology was scored at 3 locations (proximal, middle, distal) in the trochlear groove and patella. A radiographic osteoarthrosis and synovial pathology score were assigned. A Kruskal-Wallis test was used to determine if lesion severity varied by site, synovitis, and osteoarthrosis, and the Dunn's test was used for pairwise comparisons. The variability of body weight was evaluated using 1 way ANOVA; P < .05 was considered significant. Cartilage pathology and synovitis was identified in all PF joints. The proximal aspect of the trochlear groove had significantly higher cartilage scores than the middle and distal sites and the middle groove site was significantly higher than the distal site. The distal aspect of the patella had significantly greater scores than the middle and proximal patellar locations. Higher synovitis scores were associated with increased cartilage scores. Cartilage scores were significantly greater in stifles with higher radiographic osteophytosis, tibial sclerosis, and patellar enthesiophytosis scores. Higher body weights were significantly associated with greater synovial and radiographic scores. Dogs with CCL disease have a high incidence of PF cartilage pathology and the severity of cartilage lesions varies depending on location within the joint.

Computed tomographic method for measurement of inclination angles and motion of the sacroiliac joints in German Shepherd Dogs and Greyhounds

To develop an in vivo CT method to measure inclination angles and motion of the sacroiliac joints in dogs of performance breeds. 10 German Shepherd Dogs and 12 Greyhounds without signs of lumbosacral region pain or neurologic problems. CT of the ilium and sacrum was performed in flexed, neutral, and extended hind limb positions. Lines were drawn on volume-rendered images acquired in the flexed and extended positions to measure motion of the ilia relative to the sacra. Inclination angles of the synovial and ligamentous components of the sacroiliac joints were measured on transverse-plane CT images acquired at cranial and caudal locations. Coefficients of variance of measurements were calculated to determine intraobserver variability. Coefficients of variance of measurements ranged from 0.17% to 2.45%. A significantly higher amount of sacroiliac joint rotational motion was detected for German Shepherd Dogs versus Greyhounds. The cranial synovial joint component had a significantly more sagittal orientation in German Shepherd Dogs versus Greyhounds. No significant differences were detected between breeds for x- or y-axis translational motion or caudal synovial or ligamentous joint component inclination angles. The small amounts of sacroiliac joint motion detected in this study may buffer high-frequency vibrations during movement of dogs. Differences detected between breeds may be associated with the predisposition of German Shepherd Dogs to develop lumbosacral region signs of pain, although the biological importance of this finding was not determined. Future studies are warranted to compare sacroiliac joint variables between German Shepherd Dogs with and without lumbosacral region signs of pain.

Safety and immunomodulatory effects of allogeneic canine adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells transplanted into the region of the lacrimal gland, the gland of the third eyelid and the knee joint

Background aimsMesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) have been extensively studied as a cellular therapeutic for various pathologic conditions. However, there remains a paucity of data regarding regional and systemic safety of MSC transplantations, particularly with multiple deliveries of allogeneic cells. The purpose of this study was to investigate the safety and systemic immunomodulatory effects of repeated local delivery of allogeneic MSCs into the region of the lacrimal gland, the gland of the third eyelid and the knee joint in dogs. MethodsAllogeneic adipose tissue-derived canine MSCs were delivered to the regions of the lacrimal gland and the third eyelid gland as well as in the knee joints of six healthy laboratory beagles as follows: six times with 1-week intervals for delivery to the lacrimal gland and the third eyelid gland regions and three to four times with 1- to 2-week intervals for intra-articular transplantations. Dogs were sequentially evaluated by clinical examination. At the conclusion of the study, dogs were humanely euthanized, and a complete gross and histopathologic examination of all organ systems was performed. Mixed leukocyte reactions were also performed before the first transplantation and after the final transplantation. ResultsClinical and pathologic examinations found no severe consequences after repeated MSC transplantations. Results of mixed leukocyte reactions demonstrated suppression of T-cell proliferation after MSC transplantations. ConclusionsThis is the first study to demonstrate regional and systemic safety and systemic immunomodulatory effects of repeated local delivery of allogeneic MSCs in vivo.

Complications of lateral plate fixation compared with tension band wiring and pin or lag screw fixation for calcaneoquartal arthrodesis

To compare complication rates and the outcomes of these complications after lateral plate fixation with figure-of-eight tension-band-wire and pin or lag screw fixation for arthrodesis of the calcaneoquartal joint, following non-traumatic disruption of the plantar tarsal ligament in dogs. Data were collected retrospectively from five UK referral centres. Diplomate specialists and their residents performed all procedures. Referring veterinarians were contacted for long-term follow-up. Seventy-four procedures were undertaken in 61 dogs. There were 58 arthrodeses in the lateral plate group (Plate), nine in the pin and tension-band-wire group (Pin), and seven in the lag screw and tension-band wire-group (Screw). Compared to Plate (17%), further surgical intervention was required more frequently following Pin (56%, OR = 3.2) or Screw (43%, OR = 2.5) fixation. Clinical failure of arthrodesis occurred less frequently with Plate (5%) compared with Screw (43%, OR = 8.6) and Pin fixation (22%, OR = 4.4). Cases managed with external coaptation postoperatively were more likely to suffer from postoperative complications (OR = 2.2). Lateral plating was associated with fewer postoperative complications than pin and tension-band-wire fixation for arthrodesis of the calcaneoquartal joint in dogs with non-traumatic disruption of the plantar tarsal ligament.

Anaesthetic arthrography of the shoulder joint in dogs

To evaluate the use of intra-articular anaesthesia combined with positive contrast arthrography (collectively called 'anaesthetic arthrography' [AA]) in the shoulder in order to identify and confirm the source of pain in lame dogs. Anaesthetic arthrography was performed in 30 dogs with shoulder joint lameness with a mixture of contrast medium (iohexol: 240 mg I/ml) and a local anaesthetic (mepivacaine 2%: 20 mg/ml). The effect of intra-articular anaesthesia was evaluated by an objectified visual scoring system and the arthrograms were evaluated for their diagnostic value. This study showed that AA was positive in 28 out of 30 dogs. Dilution of the contrast medium with a local anaesthetic produced an arthrogram of good quality for each shoulder joint. In 16 out of 18 cases of osteochondritis dissecans, a cartilage flap could be identified following arthrography. In all cases the flap was not identified from plain radiographs. Biceps brachii tendon pathology was diagnosed on arthrography in seven dogs but was missed in two dogs. Calcification at the caudal rim of the glenoid cavity was diagnosed in three dogs, but was of clinical importance in only two dogs. In addition one infection was diagnosed during synovial aspiration. Anaesthetic arthrography of the shoulder is a simple, safe, and reliable diagnostic test to confirm shoulder joint pain and simultaneously identify a lesion. This procedure may be of particular importance in cases of occult shoulder joint lameness when clinical findings and plain radiographs are inconclusive.