Job Displacement Research Articles

Practices of artificial intelligence to improve the business in Bangladesh

This research paper explores the practices of artificial intelligence (AI) and its impact on improving businesses in Bangladesh through the review of existing literature and primary data analysis. Additionally, a conceptual analysis has been conducted on key AI concepts and their potential applications in the Bangladeshi business context. The study's objectives include providing a detailed understanding of specific AI technologies, measuring the benefits of AI, assessing the challenges faced by the industry in implementing AI and finding probable solutions to overcome these challenges. Data were collected from 120 respondents from 10 types of businesses in Bangladesh and analyzed using MS Excel and SPSS (V. 25). According to the results, using AI in enterprises may have a significant positive impact on efficiency, decision-making, production, cost, fraud detection, and supply chain optimization. However, obstacles to AI deployment include a lack of qualified personnel, poor data quality, money, infrastructure, and legal frameworks. Businesses should raise employee understanding of AI, look for diversified financing and qualified personnel, work with the government on infrastructure support and legislation, address concerns about job displacement through training, and encourage employee acceptance of change in order to overcome these challenges. Businesses in Bangladesh may improve operations and competitiveness by using these techniques. Business executives, decision-makers, and academics interested in maximizing the potential of AI and enhancing business outcomes in Bangladesh might learn from this study.

Challenges and Opportunities Involved in Implementing AI in Workplace

The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the workplace has ushered in a new era of productivity and efficiency. However, it also presents a myriad of challenges and opportunities. Artificial Intelligence (AI) has emerged as a revolutionary force in the contemporary workplace, reshaping industries and employment dynamics. This abstract explores the multifaceted influence of AI on various aspects of work, including productivity, decision-making, job roles, and ethical considerations. It highlights the adoption of AI-driven automation, machine learning, and data analytics, which have streamlined operations, improved efficiency, and accelerated innovation. However, this transformation has also raised concerns about job displacement, the need for upskilling, and ethical implications related to AI-powered decision-making. It provides an overview of the complex interplay between AI and the workplace, emphasizing the need for responsible AI integration and ongoing research to harness its potential while addressing its challenges. This abstract provides a concise overview of the key issues surrounding the environment of AI in the workplace. The biggest challenge posed by AI is the risk of job displacement. This is because, in most of the industries, employers think machines are more intelligent and efficient and they can even replace human workers. This may lead to socio economic inequality. On the other hand it also has certain benefit. AI can gather information and process it quickly compared to human being and it can also handle repetitive tasks across an organization.

Technological Advancement and its Impact on Workers

This study is primarily concerned with "technological advancement" in the workplace and the effects it has on workers. Technological development in the workplace essentially refers to the introduction of new technologies to improve and enhance the work process, which will eventually lead to an increase in productivity and make the overall office environment more efficient and streamlined. Technological improvements have had a tremendous impact on the workforce in numerous industries over the years. Because of the rising use of technology, there is a greater demand for the uniquely human qualities that people develop throughout time. Job quality may improve as labor becomes less routine, repetitive, and tiresome. Though the use of technology in the workplace has resulted in significant changes in the way work is performed, and this has had a profound impact on workers such as privacy concerns, labor job displacement, and so on, this paper provides solutions for the dilemma faced by workers as a result of technological advancement in the workplace. further Automation and artificial intelligence have recently changed nearly every business area. This article covers the role and significant ramifications of AI and automation in the workplace, as well as ideas for amending Indian labor legislation to address the future effects of AI and automation on workers.

Harmonizing Artificial Intelligence with Islamic Values - A Thoughtful Analysis of Religious, Social, and Economic Impacts of Technological Advancements

The research explored the integration of AI technologies with Islamic principles and their implications for religious, social, and economic structures in Muslim-majority countries. It used qualitative design, semi-structured interviews, and case studies to analyze digitization of the Holy Qur’an and Hadith, and AI in banking compliance with Shariah laws, focusing on lexical-semantic, syntactical, grammatical, and pragmatic issues. A few of the such AI-based Qur’an tools include KSU Qur’an (مشروع المصحف الإلكتروني بجامعة الملك سعود), Islam web, Qur’anic Arabic Corpus, Almonagib alQur’any (المنقب القرآني), Tanzil (Tanzil Documents), The Qur’an (Al-Qur’an (القرآن) - Online Qur’an Project - Translation and Tafsir) and the Noble Qur’an (The Noble Qur’an – القرآن الكريم). Islamic Fintech, which adheres to Shariah principles, is embracing innovation to streamline transactions and comply with the Holy Qur’an. AI virtual assistants like ‘Aisyah’ are being adopted by Islamic banks to streamline transactions and eliminate risks like leverage and uneven maturity. The regulatory management of Islamic FinTech includes issues like Islamic cryptocurrency rules, money creation, and eliminating ‘riba’. In Malaysia and Indonesia, digital zakat distribution and classification systems are being developed using AI to accurately classify those in need and compute financial percentages for each group. Thematic analysis revealed that human-inspired, analytical, and humanized AI has led to its significant impact on various aspects of life, society, and employment. Nonetheless, AI cannot substitute for the profound comprehension and knowledge of Islamic jurists, alongside human reasoning and intellectual competence. Job displacement and ethical concerns of accuracy, transparency, fairness, and accountability remain significant challenges for society.

Ensuring a ‘Responsible’ AI future in India: RRI as an approach for identifying the ethical challenges from an Indian perspective

AbstractArtificial intelligence (AI) can be seen to be at an inflexion point in India, a country which is keen to adopt and exploit new technologies, but needs to carefully consider how they do this. AI is usually deployed with good intentions, to unlock value and create opportunities for the people; however it does not come without its challenges. There are a set of ethical–social issues associated with AI, which include concerns around privacy, data protection, job displacement, historical bias and discrimination. Through a series of focus groups with knowledgeable people embedded in India and its culture, this research explores the ethical–societal changes and challenges that India now faces. Further, it investigates whether the principles and practices of responsible research and innovation (RRI) might provide a framework to help identify and deal with these issues. The results show that the areas in which RRI could offer scope to improve this outlook include education, policy and governance, legislation and regulation, and innovation and industry practices. Some significant challenges described by participants included: the lack of awareness of AI by the public as well as policy makers; India’s access and implementation of Western datasets, resulting in a lack of diversity, exacerbation of existing power asymmetries, increase in social inequality and the creation of bias; the potential replacement of jobs by AI. One option was to look at a hybrid approach, a mix of AI and humans, with expansion and upskilling of the current workforce. In terms of strategy, there seems to be a gap between the rhetoric of the government and what is seen on the ground, and therefore going forward there needs to be a much greater engagement with a wider audience of stakeholders.

Technologie generatywne w szkolnictwie wyższym - diagnoza sytuacji, przydatne kompetencje i propozycja metody

This article proposes the application of generative technologies, specifically large language models, in higher education. While such technologies present novel opportunities, at the same time, they raise concerns, including potential cognitive degradation, job displacement, and intellectual property issues. The first section of this paper introduces the essential concepts and methods of generative technologies, coupled with a discussion on the necessary competencies to fully harness their potential. The next section suggests an addition to usual teaching methods, using the ‘Artificial Intelligence in Business’ course as an example. This proposed enhancement incorporates a review of student work outcomes by systems powered by large language models. The underlying didactic principles of the course, sample system reports, and an illustrative diagram of the teaching process are presented. The paper concludes by contemplating the possible advantages and challenges posed by these technologies in pedagogy, along with recommendations for future research.

The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Employment and Workforce Trends in the Post-Pandemic Era

Abstract: The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into the workforce has taken canter stage, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic and the imperative for remote and efficient work solutions. This research paper extensively examines the multifaceted impact of AI on employment and workforce trends in the post-pandemic era. Our study investigates the profound changes AI brings to the labour market, touching on issues such as job displacement, skills adaptation, and the evolving nature of work. Furthermore, we explore the ethical dimensions and socio-economic considerations of this transition. This paper offers a global perspective on how AI-driven workforce changes affect diverse regions and economies. Finally, it outlines strategies and recommendations for individuals and organizations to navigate this evolving landscape, ensuring a harmonious blend of AI technologies with human potential. The first dimension of this research is a prospective analysis of the current and future landscape. "Artificial Intelligence, Pandemic, and Employment: A Prospective Analysis" by John A. Smith provides a comprehensive exploration of the potential effects of AI and the pandemic on employment. Smith identifies the key challenges and opportunities emerging from this convergence, offering insights into the ever-changing world of work. He emphasizes the need for proactive adaptation to maximize the benefits of AI and navigate the challenges brought about by the pandemic. The impact of AI technologies is not limited to workforce trends; it extends to the broader labour market dynamics. In "AI and Labor Market Shifts: Implications for Post-Pandemic Recovery" by David R. Johnson, the research focuses on the implications of AI on labour market shifts. Johnson underlines the necessity of adopting forward-looking policies to ensure a harmonious transition into a post-pandemic world driven by AI. The study argues for a balanced approach that accounts for potential job displacement and highlights the importance of re-skilling and up-skilling initiatives.

The consequences of artificial intelligence: an investigation into the impact of AI on job displacement in accounting

Purpose The advent of artificial intelligence (AI) in the accounting landscape marks a significant shift, promising gains in efficiency and accuracy but also eliciting concerns about job displacement (JD) and broader socio-economic implications. This study aims to provide an in-depth understanding of how AI’s integration in accounting contributes to JD, reshapes decision-making processes and reverberates across economic and social dimensions. It also offers evidence-based policy recommendations to mitigate adverse outcomes. Design/methodology/approach Leveraging a cross-sectional survey disseminated through Facebook, this research used snowball sampling to target a diverse cohort of accounting professionals. The collected data were subjected to meticulous analysis through descriptive and regression models, facilitated by SmartPLS 4 software. Findings The analysis revealed a significant correlation between AI’s increasing role in accounting and a heightened rate of JD. This study found that this displacement is not isolated; it has tangible repercussions on decision-making paradigms, economic well-being, professional work dynamics and social structures. These insights corroborate existing frameworks, including, but not limited to, theories of technological unemployment and behavioural adjustments. Research limitations/implications Although providing valuable insights, this study acknowledges limitations such as the restricted sample size, the cross-sectional nature of the survey and the inherent biases of self-reported data. Future research could aim to extend these initial findings by adopting a longitudinal approach and potentially integrating external data sources. Practical implications As AI technology becomes increasingly ingrained in accounting practices, there is an urgent need for coordinated action among stakeholders. Policy recommendations include focused efforts on talent retention, investment in upskilling programs and the establishment of support mechanisms for those adversely affected by AI adoption. Originality/value By synthesising a range of theoretical perspectives, this study offers a comprehensive exploration of AI’s multi-dimensional impacts on the accounting profession. It stands out for its nuanced examination of JD and its economic and social implications, thereby contributing to both academic discourse and policy formulation. This work serves as an urgent call to action, highlighting the need for strategies that both exploit AI’s potential benefits and protect the workforce from its disruptive impact.

Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI) The Evolution of AI Beyond Human Capacity

Artificial Super Intelligence (ASI) is a hypothetical stage of AI development where machines possess cognitive abilities far surpassing those of humans. ASI is characterized by superior intelligence, self-improvement capabilities, emotional intelligence, and autonomous decision-making. The advent of ASI would have profound implications across sectors, including scientific advancement, economic impact, and societal transformation. However, the development of ASI raises ethical concerns, such as control and alignment, existential risks, privacy, and job displacement. Responsible development and control are essential to harness ASI’s potential while safeguarding humanity. Navigating this uncharted territory requires vigilance, ethics, and foresight. The future of ASI holds great promise, but it also demands our utmost responsibility.

Exploring the Ethical Dimensions of AI in Decision-Making Processes

Artificial Intelligence (AI) has swiftly integrated into decision-making processes across various sectors, transforming how choices are made. This review examines the ethical considerations of using AI in decision-making, focusing on the implications of algorithms, automation, and machine learning. The integration of AI introduces numerous ethical concerns that require thorough examination. The opacity of algorithms raises issues of transparency, accountability, and bias. AI-driven decision-making can be complex and challenging to interpret, leading to difficulties in understanding how specific decisions are reached. This lack of clarity and accountability poses ethical challenges, particularly when decisions impact individuals or groups. Bias in AI algorithms is a significant ethical issue. Machine learning models trained on biased data can perpetuate and amplify existing biases. Addressing this requires careful evaluation of training data, algorithm design, and ongoing monitoring to ensure fairness and reduce discrimination. The growing reliance on AI for decision-making also raises questions about accountability and responsibility. Determining who is responsible for AI-made decisions is complex. Establishing an accountability framework is essential to ensure shared responsibility among individuals, organizations, and developers. Ethical considerations also encompass the broader societal impact of AI in decision-making. Issues such as job displacement, economic inequality, and the concentration of power require careful ethical analysis. Balancing technological progress with social responsibility is crucial to ensure AI benefits society. In conclusion, this review emphasizes the ethical implications of integrating AI into decision-making. It highlights the importance of transparency, fairness, and accountability in addressing concerns about bias, responsibility, and societal impact. Ethical frameworks must evolve alongside technology to ensure responsible and equitable AI integration in decision-making.

Workforce automation risks across race and gender in the United States

AbstractAlthough the effects of automation on the future of work have received considerable attention, little research has been conducted on the costs of this technological transformation for different populations of workers. This article makes an important contribution as one of the first to analyze the intersectional effects of workforce automation across race and gender in the United States. Multilevel survey data models are employed using two distinct measures of automation job displacement risk for over 1.4 million Americans across 385 occupations. This research demonstrates that the intersection of race and gender matters for individual automation risks. Education, age, disability, and nativity are also significant. These findings indicate that labor market outcomes of job automation will be based not only on differences in human capital but critically on socially constructed identities as well.

Routine-biased technological change and employee outcomes after mass layoffs: evidence from Brazil

Abstract We investigate the impact of “routinization” on the labor outcomes of displaced workers. We use a rich Brazilian panel dataset and an occupation-task mapping to examine the effect of job displacement in different groups, classified according to their tasks. Our main result is that following a layoff, workers previously employed in routine-intensive occupations suffer a more significant decline in wages and more extended periods of unemployment. As expected, job displacement has a negative and lasting impact on wages. Still, workers in routine-intensive occupations are more impacted than those in non-routine occupations in terms of wages (an increase of one point in the routine-intensity index results in a further decline of 2% in workers’ relative wages) and employment. Furthermore, our results indicate that workers in routine-intensive occupations are more likely to change occupations after the shock, and those who do not switch occupational fields suffer a more significant decline in wages. Lastly, even though the loss of employer-specific wage premiums explains 13% of displaced workers’ drop in wages, it does not explain routine-intensive workers’ more substantial losses.

Social Innovation in the Algorithmic Mind: Navigating the Psychological Landscape of Artificial Intelligence Reimagined

Artificial intelligence often termed as (AI) has emerged as a Changing force, revolutionizing various aspects of human life within the rapidly advancing realm of technology. While AI showcases immense potential for progress and innovation, its profound psychological impact on individuals and society cannot be overlooked. The paper further investigates the psychological impacts of AI across diverse domains, including education, healthcare, and social interaction. Offering insights into promising benefits and formidable barriers, the primary focus remains on the intricate nature of AI. In the swiftly evolving technological landscape, AI stands as a driving force with significant applications in various sectors such as education, healthcare, and manufacturing. Aligned with the National Strategy on Artificial Intelligence (NSAI) of India, AI encompasses systems capable of reasoning, learning, and adapting to changing environments, enhancing performance over time. Key components of AI, such as Machine Learning, Natural Language Processing (NLP), Computer Vision, Robotics, and Expert Systems, play pivotal roles in shaping its capabilities. While AI has the potential to address global challenges like climate change and diseases, responsible and ethical use is imperative to prevent the emergence of new issues, including social inequality and job displacement. This research paper provides a comprehensive exploration of the multifaceted psychological implications of AI, delving into its far-reaching effects on human cognition, emotion, behavior, and overall well-being.

A STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF TRADE LIBERALISATION IN INDIA

The impact of trade liberalization in India has been a subject of significant academic and policy interest, particularly since the early 1990s when the country embarked on a path of economic reforms. This research paper explores the multifaceted consequences of trade liberalization on India's economy. Through a comprehensive analysis of empirical data, economic indicators, and scholarly literature, the paper examines both the positive and negative impacts of trade liberalization. The positive effects of trade liberalization are evident in India's impressive economic growth, driven by increased exports, foreign direct investment, and enhanced efficiency and competitiveness of industries. The opening of international markets has expanded consumer choices and improved product quality. Export growth has bolstered foreign exchange reserves and positively influenced the balance of payments. However, this paper also delves into the challenges posed by trade liberalization. It highlights the vulnerability of the Indian economy to external shocks due to increased global integration. Income inequality has widened as the benefits of liberalization have not uniformly reached all segments of society. Job displacement, particularly in industries facing stiff competition from imports, and agricultural challenges arising from competition with cheaper imported agricultural products, are significant concerns. The paper emphasizes the need for policymakers to address the negative consequences of trade liberalization by implementing measures to mitigate income inequality, support displaced workers, and strengthen the agricultural sector. The method used here was the empirical method. The sampling method taken here was the convenient sampling method and the sample size was 200. The sampling frame was established within the city of Chennai, located in the state of Tamil Nadu. The dependent variables are level of awareness regarding the impacts of trade liberalization in India, positive impact of trade liberalization on India's GDP, negative implications of trade liberalization on the Indian economy, main objectives of economic liberalization are the effective distribution of resources and competitive advantages and the independent variables are age, gender, educational qualification, salary and occupation. The research tools used here are simple bar charts, independent sample T test, univariate analysis of variance and correlation . It also underscores the importance of strategic economic planning to manage potential trade imbalances and prevent undue concentration of economic power. In conclusion, this research paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the impact of trade liberalization in India, highlighting its dual nature bringing both opportunities and challenges. By examining empirical evidence and drawing insights from scholarly sources, the paper contributes to a nuanced understanding of the complex relationship between trade liberalization and economic outcomes in India. KEY WORDS: Trade liberalisation, Global market, Trade barriers, Domestic sectors, Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

AI Transformation in Business: Unveiling the Dual Effects of Advancement and Challenges

Abstract-Artificial Intelligence (AI) is revolutionizing the business landscape with two positive and negative consequences. On the positive side, AI drives operational efficiency, cost reduction, and innovation. It leads to increased automated repetitive tasks, improves data analysis, and enhances customer experiences, productivity, and Customer loyalty. AI's data-driven insights enable better decision-making and risk management, ensuring adaptability in dynamic markets. Conversely, the rapid integration of AI raises job displacement concerns, particularly in lower-skilled roles. Ethical dilemmas, including privacy breaches and algorithmic bias, emerge due to AI's reliance on data. The misuse of AI for deepfake videos and security threats poses additional risks. Businesses must navigate this dual-edged impact by harnessing AI's potential for growth and cost-efficiency while mitigating its adverse effects. Ethical considerations and regulatory frameworks are paramount in ensuring AI's responsible and balanced integration into business operations.

AUTOMATION OF PRODUCTION PROCESSES IN AGRICULTURE USING SELECTED ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE TOOLS

The agriculture industry is experiencing a transformative shift towards greater efficiency and sustainability through the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) tools into various production processes. This article presents an overview of selected AI tools and their practical utilization in agriculture, shedding light on their profound impact on enhancing crop yields, resource management, and overall farm productivity. The article also provides an overview of the definition of artificial intelligence and a timeline starting with the first mention of artificial intelligence and ending with the present to better understand the described issue. The article highlights the importance of responsible AI development and integration. The ethical and societal implications of AI in agriculture, such as job displacement and data privacy concerns, are also addressed. The adoption of AI technologies is expected to play a vital role in meeting the global food demand while addressing the challenges faced by the agriculture sector. However, it is crucial to navigate these advancements responsibly, ensuring that the benefits of AI in agriculture are maximized while minimizing potential drawbacks.

Impact of AI on Healthcare with Specific Reference to Nurses' Education

Integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI) in healthcare has revolutionized the industry by enhancing patient care, optimizing clinical workflows, and improving healthcare professionals' education and training. This paper explores the multifaceted impact of AI on healthcare delivery, specifically focusing on its influence on nurse education. AI-driven technologies have ushered in a new era of personalized learning, enabling nurses to acquire essential skills, stay current with medical advancements, and adapt to dynamic healthcare environments. Additionally, AI-powered tools have streamlined administrative tasks, allowing nurses to allocate more time to patient care. However, this transformation has challenges, including concerns about job displacement, data privacy, and the need for effective AI curriculum integration. This abstract provides a glimpse into the broader discussion surrounding AI's role in healthcare delivery and its implications for nurse education, highlighting its promises and challenges in shaping the future of nursing practice.

Artificial Intelligence in Human Resource Management: Advancements, Implications and Future Prospects

The present condition, challenges, and potential applications of artificial intelligence (AI) in human resource management (HRM) are all explored in this survey article. As an innovation, artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to completely revolutionize several facets of human resource management (HRM). Examining the usage of AI-powered tools and systems in different HR processes, the present situation with AI in HRM is examined. These encompass learning and development, performance management, employee engagement, and recruiting. The use of AI algorithms and machine learning approaches to automate regular HR operations, analyze vast amounts of employee data, and provide insightful data to aid decision-making is addressed in this article. However, integrating AI into HRM also poses a number of difficulties that must be resolved. Bias, privacy issues, and transparency are just a few of the ethical and legal ramifications of using AI in decision-making processes that are discussed in this survey. The study emphasizes how accountability and fairness must be maintained in AI systems by responsible design, oversight, and periodic evaluation. With an emphasis on job displacement and workforce reorganization, the possible influence of AI on the human workforce is also explored. To effectively traverse this change, strategies including work role redefinition, employee up skilling, and establishing a collaborative atmosphere between humans and AI are suggested. The possible advantages and breakthroughs that AI might bring to HRM practices are highlighted as the future perspectives of AI in HRM are examined. As new applications for AI in HRM, sentiment analysis, predictive analytics, intelligent decision support, and personalized employee experiences are all highlighted. In order to fully realize the promise of AI in HRM, the study underlines the significance of data infrastructure, data governance frameworks, and a data-driven culture. Overall, this survey study offers an in-depth review of the existing situation, difficulties, and prospects for AI in HRM. It aggregates current information, identifies research gaps, and gives practitioners and scholars new perspectives on how AI will fundamentally alter the way HRM activities are carried out in the future.

A Factual Analysis of the Causal Effect of Sociocultural and Political Factors on Entrepreneurial Intention: Insights from Nigeria

The paper presents a factual analysis of the sociocultural and political determinants of entrepreneurial intention with insights from Nigerian society to provide an understanding of their manifestations and causal effect on entrepreneurial intention. The objective is to validate the provisional understanding of the effect of sociocultural and political factors on entrepreneurial intention provided in the literature. In consonance with the objective a systematic review of the literature was carried out to search for pertinent factors using web based search engines, and several scholarly articles were isolated and examined. Topic search was used to identify articles on sociocultural factors in connection with entrepreneurial intention using their titles, abstracts, and keywords. It attempted, through an extensive literature review, to provide an integrated view for a more comprehensive understanding of sociocultural factors and entrepreneurial intention; and the key sociocultural factors that lead members of society to become entrepreneurs. For robustness, an extensive search for relevant literature was undertaken through a continuous filtering process and 134 articles dealing with sociocultural and/or political determinants of entrepreneurial intention were obtained. The factual analysis of the Nigerian context provided evidence that confirm the theoretical postulations in the articles reviewed. Evidently, all the sociocultural factors and political factors have some direct or indirect influence on entrepreneurial intentions in Nigeria. However, some of them only have modest influence. The strongest and most direct factual evidence was shown in unemployment, work experience, family values and ethnic values, while the weakest and most indirect influence was shown as religious values, social recognition and status, and social security. The effects of peer influence, social network, and job displacement are considered to be relatively weak. Essentially, however, the Nigerian experience and cases argued in this paper provides clarity to the hitherto provisional understanding of how entrepreneurial intention is affected and influenced by the sociocultural experience of a people.

Job displacement effects and labor market sorting during COVID-19

This paper examines the effects of job loss on workers. Using detailed administrative data from Costa Rica, we use a clustering algorithm to group workers into types based on their employment stability and job search efficiency. Our results show that job displacement leads to persistent earning losses for workers, particularly during economic downturns such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Displaced workers during the pandemic are moving to more productive and higher-paying firms, especially those types with initially higher earnings potentials and stable employment histories. Nonetheless, these workers are also shifting to lower-paying occupations. The findings suggest that changes in job characteristics rather than employer characteristics should be considered to explain earning losses and labor reallocation in the aftermath of the pandemic.