Jat Sikh Research Articles

Genetic differentiation and population structure of five ethnic groups of Punjab (North-West India)

The state of Punjab in the North-West part of India has acted as the main passage for all the major human invasions into the Indian subcontinent. It has resulted in the mixing of foreign gene pool into the local populations, which led to an extensive range of genetic diversity and has influenced the genetic structure of populations in Punjab, North-West India. The present study was conducted to examine the genetic structure, relationships, and extent of genetic differentiation in five Indo-European speaking ethnic groups of Punjab. A total of 1021 unrelated samples belonging to Banias, Brahmins, Jat Sikhs, Khatris, and Scheduled castes were analyzed for four human-specific Ins/Del polymorphic loci (ACE, APO, PLAT, and D1) and three restriction fragment length polymorphisms ESR (PvuII), LPL (PvuII), and T2 (MspI) using Polymerase chain reaction (PCR). All the loci were found to be polymorphic among the studied populations. The frequency of the Alu insertion at APO locus was observed to exhibit the highest value (82.6-96.3%), whereas D1 exhibited the lowest (26.5-45.6%) among all the ethnic groups. The average heterozygosity among the studied populations ranged from 0.3816 in Banias to 0.4163 in Khatris. The FST values ranged from 0.0418 to 0.0033 for the PLAT and LPL loci, respectively, with an average value being 0.0166. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Banias and Khatris are genetically closest to each other. The Jat Sikhs are genetically close to Brahmins and are distant from the Banias. The Jat Sikhs, Banias, Brahmins, and Khatris are genetically very distant from the Scheduled castes. Overall, Uniform allele frequency distribution patterns, high average heterozygosity values, and a small degree of genetic differentiation in this study suggest a genetic proximity among the selected populations. A low level of genetic differentiation was observed in the studied population groups indicating that genetic drift might have been small or negligible in shaping the genetic structure of North-West Indian Populations.

Analysis of ANKKI (rs1800497) and DRD2 (rs1079597, rs1800498) variants in five ethnic groups from Punjab, North-West India

Dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) is one of the essential neurotransmitters in the brain studied extensively in the field of psychiatric disorders, alcoholic behaviors and Pharmacology. It is also a promising gene for studying the evolutionary and genetic variation among populations. The present study was an attempt to understand the extent of genetic variation among five different ethnic groups (Bania, Brahmin, Jat Sikh, Khatri and Scheduled caste) of Punjab (North West India). A total of 1012 individuals belonging to the above mentioned groups were analyzed for three TaqI Polymorphic loci of DRD2 and ankyrin repeat and kinase domain containing 1 (ANKKI) using the allele frequencies and haplotype frequency distribution pattern. All the three loci were found to be polymorphic among the studied populations. The average heterozygosity for all loci in these ethnic groups was fairly substantial ranging from 0.3936 to 0.4986. The genetic differentiation among the population was observed to be in order of 0.0053.Among of the eight studied haplotypes, only six were shared by all the ethnic groups. TaqID and TaqIB loci were reported to be in significantly higher linkage disequilibrium (LD) in Scheduled Caste only, whereas TaqIA and TaqID showed modest LD in Brahmin, Jat Sikh and Khatri. Multidimensional scaling analysis revealed that the studied ethnic groups formed a close cluster, suggesting similar genetic structure of these populations which are in close proximity with other Indo European speaking North Indian and western Indian population groups. Overall this study highlights the genomic uniformity among the ethnic groups of Punjab (North-West India) owing to their common ancestral history and geographical closeness.

Religious Assertion Among Dalits in Doaba Region of Punjab

In the last few decades, India has experienced a strong wave of Dalit assertion. As a result of economic, political policies and other efforts of government, assertion has taken many forms and the most apparent is religious assertion. They were proud of their caste and following the teachings of their Gurus. This phenomenon is more prevalent in Doaba region of Punjab because of their numerical preponderance with more than 60 per cent of the population in some of the villages. So the present study was conducted with specific objective to study the religious assertion among Dalits of Doaba. From randomly selected 16 villages from four districts of the regionl60 Dalits were interviewed. The study found that 14 village had separate Gurudwaras for Dalits. They celebrated their religious functions separately with great pomp and show. Though, overtly Jat Sikh have not defied their attempt(s) and were supportive but the chances of conflict cannot be ruled out completely.

Association of genetic variants in INS (rs689), INSR (rs1799816) and PP1G.G (rs1799999) with type 2 diabetes (T2D): a case-control study in three ethnic groups from North-West India.

Genetic contributions towards Type 2 diabetes (T2D) have been assessed through association studies across different world populations with inconsistencies. The majority of the T2D susceptibility loci are common across different races or populations but show ethnicity-specific differences. The pathogenesis of T2D involves genetic variants in the candidate genes. The interactions between the genes involved in insulin signaling and secretory pathways are believed to play an important role in determining an individual's susceptibility towards T2D. Therefore, the present study was initiated to examine the differences, if any, in the contribution of polymorphisms towards T2D susceptibility in the background of different ethnic specifications. The present case-control study included a total of 1216 T2D cases and healthy controls from three ethnic groups (Jat Sikhs, Banias and Brahmins) of North-West India. Polymorphisms were selected on the basis of information available in the literature for INS (rs689), INSR (rs1799816) and PP1G.G (rs1799999) in context to T2D. The genotyping was done using PCR-RFLP method. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS 16.0. The analyses revealed that INS (rs689) polymorphism conferred risk towards T2D susceptibility in all the three ethnic groups whereas INSR (rs1799816) polymorphism conferred risk towards T2D in Brahmins only and PP1G.G (rs1799999) polymorphism indicated T2D risk in Jat Sikhs only. Furthermore, interaction analyses indicated the cumulative role of three genetic variants in modulating T2D susceptibility in the three ethnic groups. In conclusion, our results substantiated the evidences for the role of ethnicity in differential susceptibility to T2D in the background of same genetic variants.

The influence of ethnicity in the association of WC, WHR, hypertension and PGC-1α (Gly482Ser), UCP2 − 866 G/A and SIRT1 − 1400 T/C polymorphisms with T2D in the population of Punjab

AimTo assess the effect of ethnicity, the association of WC, WHR and hypertension along with PGC-1α (Gly482Ser), UCP2 −866 G/A and SIRT1 −1400 T/C polymorphisms in seven endogamous caste groups and pooled population of Punjab. MethodsStudy was conducted on 1813 individuals (859 T2D patients and 954 healthy controls) belonging to seven endogamous groups. Waist and hip circumference, height, weight and blood pressure were recorded following standard protocol using designed performa. PGC-1α (Gly482Ser) and UCP2 −866 G/A polymorphisms were genotyped using PCR RFLP and SIRT1 −1400 T/C was genotyped by direct DNA sequencing. ResultsWHR conferred risk in Brahmins (p=0.00003), Khtaris (p=0.001) and SCs (p=0.02). Similarly, we detected that WC conferred risk in BCs (p=0.012), Brahmins (p=0.016), Jat Sikhs (0.00025), Khatris (0.005) and SCs (p=0.015). In pooled population, all three factors imparted risk (WHR (p=0.00001), hypertension (p=0.003) and WC (p=0.0000016)). With respect to gene polymorphism, PGC-1α (Gly482Ser) was associated in Banias (p=0.0003), Jat Sikhs (p=0.003) and Khatris (p=0.03). Similarly, UCP2 −866 G>A showed risk in Banias (p=0.000004), BCs (p=0.01) and SCs (p=0.01). However, SIRT1 −1400 T>C showed risk only in Khatris (p=0.004). In the pooled population of Punjab, both PGC-1α (Gly482Ser) [p=0.001] and UCP2 −866 G>A (p=0.0001) polymorphisms provided risk. Interaction analysis showed 72% of the patients had risk combination of PGC-1α XA and UCP2-866 XA genotypes. ConclusionsBased on the data, Khatris were found to be showing the highest susceptibility to T2D followed by SCs. Different combinations of factors provided risk in each caste group and in pooled population. Therefore, to curve the menace of T2D, detailed information about the ethnic background of the individual will be very useful for proper medical intervention.

Genetic Polymorphism of Five STR Markers among Four Groups of Punjabi Population in North-West Punjab, India

Historically, Punjab has served a major passage way for human migration to Indian subcontinent and has influenced the genetic structure of extant populations in Punjab. Therefore, Punjabi population possesses an exclusive genetic profile primarily due to the many migratory events in this region which caused an extensive range of genetic diversity. Hence, the present study is an attempt to understand the effect of these influences on genetic differentiation, diversity a nd popula tion structure of Punjab. Genetic polymorphism at five highly polymorphic short tandem repeat loci (STR) is studied in four endogamous population groups of Punjab, India. The studied groups included Jat Sikh, Majbi Sikh, Brahmin and Ramdasia to evaluate their significance in human identification and genetic study. All selected groups practice endogamy and a total of 358 individuals belonging to these four endogamous groups were studied for five highly polymorphic with greater power of exclusion STR loci: THO1, TPOX, D7S820, CSF1PO and vWA. The highest observed heterozygosity was found in Ramdasia population for almost all the markers except vWA which had highest observed heterozygosity among Majbi Sikh population group. In this study, the average sub-ethnic differentiation (Fst) among the four populations of north-west Punjab was 0.0821. The marker with the highest contribution to interpopulation genetic difference was obser ved to be vWA.

Ethnic differences in CAPN10 SNP-19 in type 2 diabetes: a North-West Indian case control study and evidence from meta-analysis

Summary Calpain 10 (CAPN10) variants have been associated with the genetic susceptibility to type 2 diabetes (T2D). In the present case-control study, we analysed the distribution of SNP-19 insertion/deletion (I/D) polymorphism in a total of 607 samples (103 T2D cases and 102 healthy controls) from Brahmin; (100 T2D cases and 100 healthy controls) from Bania and (100 T2D cases and 102 healthy controls) from Jat Sikh ethnic groups of the North-West Indian population. Increased frequency of I allele and II genotype was found in T2D in Brahmin ethnic group [P=0·003, OR=2·83 (1·43-5·61 at 95% CI)]. Significant correlation between II genotype and body mass index (BMI) was also observed [P=0·003, OR=3·31 (1·52-7·20 at 95% CI)]. No association for the genotypes and alleles was seen in Banias and Jat Sikhs. Our data suggests that SNP-19 I/D variation in the CAPN10 gene is modulated by ethnicity and influences the susceptibility to T2D in the North-West Indian population. We also performed a meta-analysis of relevant studies to assess the validity of this association. Data from 13 case-control studies with 15760 samples comprising of 8395 T2D cases and 7365 controls were finally analysed. Significant heterogeneity between individual studies was evident in dominant and codominant models. The results of present meta-analysis indicate an association of T2D with carriers of DD genotype of CAPN10 I/D polymorphism. However, further analyses on a larger sample size are required to establish a conclusive association in meta-analysis.

Pesticide Pollution and Child Growth

The modern technology brought in pesticides and herbicides which were used senselessly to obtain more produce resulting in very detrimental health outcomes. Environmental contamination is wide spread and exposure occurs both at workplace and in residential areas. Accordingly, this paper is focused on to understand the effect of pesticide pollution on the growth and development of growing children of the Jat Sikh boys of age group 6–18 years living in the cotton belt of Bathinda in terms of height, weight and Intelligence Quotient (IQ). It was found that children living in the polluted area were shorter in height and lighter in body weight than control group and they also performed lower in the I.Q. score.

Prevalence, expression, and dichotomous nature of Carabelli′s trait in permanent dentition of contemporary Jat Sikhs

Objective: The study determines distribution and forms of expression of Carabelli's trait in contemporary Jat Sikhs. It also ascertains the dichotomous nature of this trait. Study design: The study was conducted on 200 maxillary first molars (male: female ratio 50:50). The trait was scored either as present or absent. When present it was again assessed and categorized. All data was subjected to either chi-square analysis or Student t-test evaluation when indicated. The significance was noted at the 5% level. Results: Prevalence of trait came out to be 78.5%. The trait absent/present exhibits bilateral development. Groove form was the most common (35%) while pit form was least prevalent (2.5%). Each first molar and its antimere exhibit no statistical difference in the exhibition of trait. A definite statistically significant sexual dimorphism (P<0.05) exists in phenotypic expression of trait among sexes. Percentage frequency of pronounced tubercle was almost double in males while absence of tubercle was observed three times more in females. The ratio of nontubercular: Tubercular varieties is 1:1.5. Conclusion: The difference in this study was statistically significant at the 5% level, which was consistent with the greater crown reduction usually found in females. The present quantitative study in an endogamous group is of clinical, anthropologic, and forensic value and provides phylogenetic and ontogenic insights regarding the trait.

Human-specificAluInsertion/Deletion Polymorphisms in Various Population Groups of Jammu Region

In present study, six Alu insertion/deletion polymorphisms (Alu ACE, Alu APO, Alu PV-92, Alu PLAT, Alu FXIIIB and Alu D1) were studied in five different populations ( Brahmins, Rajputs, Scheduled Castes, Gujjars and Jat Sikhs) of Jammu region. Blood samples were collected randomly from 400 unrelated healthy individuals. DNA was extracted and amplified by PCR using six target specific Oligonucleotide primers of Alu family and finally subjected to Agarose gel electrophoresis. Allele frequencies were used to calculate average heterozygosity. All the six markers were found to be highly polymorphic with high heterozygosity values. The genetic distance analysis revealed a close genomic affinity between Schedule Castes and Jat Sikhs suggesting recent diversification of these two population groups whereas Gujjars and Brahmins stood apart genetically.

Genomic diversity and affinities in population groups of North West India: An analysis of Alu insertion and a single nucleotide polymorphism

The North West region of India is extremely important to understand the peopling of India, as it acted as a corridor to the foreign invaders from Eurasia and Central Asia. A series of these invasions along with multiple migrations led to intermixture of variable populations, strongly contributing to genetic variations. The present investigation was designed to explore the genetic diversities and affinities among the five major ethnic groups from North West India; Brahmin, Jat Sikh, Bania, Rajput and Gujjar. A total of 327 individuals of the abovementioned ethnic groups were analyzed for 4 Alu insertion marker loci (ACE, PV92, APO and D1) and a Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) rs2234693 in the intronic region of the ESR1 gene. Statistical analysis was performed to interpret the genetic structure and diversity of the population groups. Genotypes for ACE, APO, ESR1 and PV92 loci were found to be in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium in all the ethnic groups, while significant departures were observed at the D1 locus in every investigated population after Bonferroni's correction. The average heterozygosity for all the loci in these ethnic groups was fairly substantial ranging from 0.3927±0.1877 to 0.4333±0.1416. Inbreeding coefficient indicated an overall 10% decrease in heterozygosity in these North West Indian populations. The gene differentiation among the populations was observed to be of the order of 0.013. Genetic distance estimates revealed that Gujjars were close to Banias and Jat Sikhs were close to Rajputs. Overall the study favored the recent division of the populations of North West India into largely endogamous groups. It was observed that the populations of North West India represent a more or less homogenous genetic entity, owing to their common ancestral history as well as geographical proximity.

Mesocephaly to Brachycephaly Shift as Seen in Punjabi Children

&lt;p&gt;Anthropometric Parameters are useful tools in evaluating growth and development. Cephalic Index helps in estimation of intracranial volume in vivo &amp;amp; thus the brain growth. This prospective longitudinal study was initiated to compare the ethnic variations in cephalic index in specific defined ethnic groups of Punjab Jat Sikh and Bania infants.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;It was observed that Jatsikh infants had a brachycephalic type of skull throughout the study whereas Bania infants displayed mesocephalic type of skull till 7&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; month of their lives and later on even they became brachycephalic in their skull shapes. It is apparent that the trend in replacing mesocephaly by brachycephaly in northern Indian children, wherein possibly Jatsikh children are ahead of Bania children in this process.&lt;/p&gt;

Essential Hypertension, DNA Damage and Dyslipidemia in Two Ethnic Groups

To study assessed DNA damage and lipid profile of essential hypertensive patients and healthy control individuals (n=72) belonging to the Baniya and Jat Sikh ethnic groups. There were 44 patients (30 Baniya and 14 Jat Sikh) on single drug treatment (atenolol) for essential hypertension and 28 healthy normotensive individuals matched for age, sex, ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Following approval by the Institutional Ethics Committee and after informed consent, demographic information and physiometric and anthropometric measurements were taken from each participant. Leukocytic DNA damage was assessed using the Single Cell Gel Electrophoresis assay and serum lipid levels were determined using an automated analyzer. Significantly elevated (p=0.000) DNA damage (DNA migration length-36.71±0.97µm; damage frequency-97.89±0.64; Damage Index (DI)-266±4.04) as well as dyslipidemia were observed in the patients with non-significant gender and ethnic group differences. DNA damage (DNA migration length, DI) was also positively correlated with dyslipidemia (triglycerides- p=0.440, total cholesterol-p=0.621,low density lipoproteins-p=0.598) in both patient sub-groups. The disease-medicine-lifestyle- BMI interplay could be causing the observed increased genetic damage, which along with dyslipidemia, raises the risk for various cardiovascular diseases and malignancy in the studied patient group.

Environmental and Genetical Differences in Linear and Adiposity Dimensions Among Adolescents Boys

The present study comprises of cross sectional data on 414 Punjabi Khatri adolescent boys at a yearly interval from age 11 through 17 years. This group was compared with endogamous 140 Jat Sikhs, an agricultural land owning ru- ral community, for profile of fatness. The anthropometric measurements taken on adolescent boys include weight, stature and skinfold thickness at biceps, triceps, suprailiac and medial calf. A gradual increase of weight from 11 to 16 years and a marginal increase from 16 to 17 years among the Punjabi Khatri boys is noticed, the same being true for stature also. The Jat Sikh boys increase gradually with peak increase in stature at 13-14 years of age followed by peak increase in weight at 14-15 years. Adolescent Punjabi khatri adolescents have more BMI than Jat Sikhs. Among the Punjabi khatri adolescent boys there is a fluctuation in fat content when calculated from GMT with maximum fat content at 12 years and in subsequent years it declines though pattern is inconsistent. As for Jat Sikh boys, maximum GMT is at 14 years and then fat decreases during the period. Biceps remains the site of minimum fat in all the age groups in both Punjabi khatri and Jat Sikh adolescent boys. The pattern is same in all the age groups in Punjabi khatri boys affirming the phenomenon of redis- tribution of fat away from extremity towards the trunk. As far as Jat Sikh adolescent boys are concerned there is an inter- site shift at 17 years from suprailiac to medial calf deviating from the usual away from extremity towards the trunk. Suprailiac is the most sensitive site followed by medial calf in both adolescent Punjabi khatri and Jat Sikh boys.

A Comparative Study of Head Circumference of Infants in Two Ethnic Groups

Anthropometric parameters serve as useful adjuncts to other observations in evaluating intrauterine as well as infantile growth and development. Determination of measurements with regard to Head Circumference of infants during first year of life is important for the assessment of physical growth. Range of anthropometric measurements in each parameter is different in different races. Earlier reported work indicates that socioeconomic and nutritional status affects the growth even within the ethnic groups. The present study is taken as a longitudinal study conducted periodically in infants (0-12 months) of two contrasting groups- Jat Sikh and Bania communities of Punjab belonging to similar socioeconomic status. Head circumference was measured with the help of measuring tape. Earlier studies indicated that racial factors of growth could be modified to some extent by improved socioeconomic status and nutrition. Since both groups compared in this study were belonging to similar socioeconomic status hence nutritional status of these groups was also similar. It was observed that Bania male as well as female infants had smaller head circumference as compared to their Jat Sikh counterparts. This change may be attributed to sedentary life style among the urban population.

A Comparative Study of Head Circumference of Infants in Two Ethnic Groups

Anthropometric parameters serve as useful adjuncts to other observations in evaluating intrauterine as well as infantile growth and development. Determination of measurements with regard to Head Circumference of infants during first year of life is important for the assessment of physical growth. Range of anthropometric measurements in each parameter is different in different races. Earlier reported work indicates that socioeconomic and nutritional status affects the growth even within the ethnic groups. The present study is taken as a longitudinal study conducted periodically in infants (0-12 months) of two contrasting groups- Jat Sikh and Bania communities of Punjab belonging to similar socioeconomic status. Head circumference was measured with the help of measuring tape. Earlier studies indicated that racial factors of growth could be modified to some extent by improved socioeconomic status and nutrition. Since both groups compared in this study were belonging to similar socioeconomic status hence nutritional status of these groups was also similar. It was observed that Bania male as well as female infants had smaller head circumference as compared to their Jat Sikh counterparts. This change may be attributed to sedentary life style among the urban population.

Y-short tandem repeat haplotype and paternal lineage of the Ezhava population of Kerala, south India

AimTo analyze the haplotype of the Ezhava population of Kerala, south India, using 8 short tandem repeat (STR) loci on the Y chromosome and trace the paternal genetic lineage of the population.MethodsWhole blood samples (n = 104) were collected from unrelated healthy men of the Ezhava population over a period of one year from October 2009. Genomic DNA was extracted by salting out method. All samples were genotyped for the 8 Y-STR loci by the AmpFiSTR Y-filer PCR Amplification Kit. The haplotype and allele frequencies were determined by direct counting and analyzed using Arlequin 3.1 software, and molecular variance was calculated with the Y-chromosome haplotype reference database online analysis tool, www.yhrd.org.ResultsAmong the 104 examined haplotypes, we found 98 unique ones. The average gene diversity was 0.669, with the highest diversity of 0.9462 observed for the biallelic Y-STR marker DYS 385. The allele frequency among DYS loci varied between 0.0096 and 0.75. Out of the 104 haplotypes, 10 were identical to the Jat Sikh population of Punjab, which is the greatest number among the Indian populations, and 4 to the Turkish population, which is the greatest number among the European populations. According to the allele frequency of Y-STR, the Ezhavas were genetically more similar to the Europeans (60%) than to the East Asians (40%).ConclusionThe vast majority of haplotypes were observed only once, reflecting the enormous genetic heterogeneity of the Ezhavas. Based on the genotype, the Ezhavas showed more resemblance to Jat Sikh population of Punjab and the Turkish populations than to the East Asians, hence indicating a paternal lineage of European origin.

Social Stratification in the Sikh Population of Punjab (India) Has a Genetic Basis: Evidence from Serological and Biochemical Markers

The present study was planned to assess whether social stratification in the Sikh population inhabiting the northwest border Indian state of Punjab has any genetic basis. Blood samples were collected randomly from a total of 2851 unrelated subjects belonging to 21 groups of two low-ranking Sikh scheduled caste populations, viz. Mazhabi and Ramdasi, and a high-ranking Jat Sikh caste population of Punjab. The genetic profile of Sikh groups was investigated using a total of nine serobiochemical genetic markers, comprising two blood groups (ABO, RH(D)) and a battery of seven red cell enzyme polymorphisms (ADA, AK1, ESD, PGM1, GLO1, ACP1, GPI), following standard serological and biochemical laboratory protocols. Genetic structure was studied using original allele frequency data and statistical measures of heterozygosity, genic differentiation, genetic distance, and genetic admixture. Great heterogeneity was observed between Sikh scheduled caste and Jat Sikh populations, especially in the RH(D) blood group system, and distribution of ESD, ACP1, and PGM1 enzyme markers was also found to be significantly different between many of their groups. Genetic distance trees demonstrated little or no genetic affinities between Sikh scheduled caste and Jat Sikh populations; the Mazhabi and Ramdasi also showed little genetic relationship. Genetic admixture analysis suggested a higher element of autochthonous tribal extraction in the Ramdasi. The present study revealed much genetic heterogeneity in differently ranking Sikh caste populations of Punjab, mainly attributable to their different ethnic backgrounds, and provided a genetic basis to social stratification present in this religious community of Punjab, India.

Aaja Nach Lai [Come Dance

This article discusses the performance of Punjabi folk dances bhangra and giddha in some Canadian contexts. After introducing a notion of Punjabi identity, the article provides a brief description of these dance forms, their agrarian origins and their gendered natures, as well as of the types of events at which these dances are performed among Canadian Punjabis, and specifically, Jat Sikhs. I argue that not only do these dances express and maintain Punjabi identity in diasporic contexts, but that these identities refer to a Jat “rural imaginary” that is actively constructed through dance and music in response to the displacement of urban and transnational migration. This rural imaginary is usurped by bhangra’s increasing Westernization and popularity in the non-Jat South Asian diaspora, thus raising challenges to Jat centrality, meaning, and identity.

A Diasporic Indian Community: Re-Imagining Punjab

This paper examines a UK Jat Sikh Punjabi diasporic community. Existing studies of such communities focus upon processes of identity formation within the UK. We suggest that British Asian identities are shaped by social processes within South Asia as well as the UK. In particular, we argue that meanings of home, amongst the UK diasporic group studied, are being importantly shaped by dynamic social and cultural processes within East Punjab. Because our research is transnational, ethnography within the UK and India, we are able to illustrate that meanings of home, as part of diasporic identities, can be context-dependent, contradictory and are 'intrinsically linked with the way in which processes of inclusion or exclusion operate and are subjectively experienced under given circumstances' (Brah 1996: 192).