Japanese Prisoners Of War Research Articles

PERANCANGAN PALANG MERAH INDONESIA KOTA MUARA TEWEH

The Indonesian Red Cross, which is often known by the abbreviation PMI, is a national association organization located in Indonesia and engaged in the humanitarian field. The activity that was first carried out by PMI was to help victims of the Indonesian Revolutionary War of Independence and return victims of Allied and Japanese prisoners of war so that the Indonesian Red Cross has gained international recognition. The purpose of the design this time is "How to design the Muara Teweh Indonesian Red Cross (PMI) building which is able to fulfill the activities of the volunteers and their working staff by providing assistance and blood services to the people in the city of Muara Teweh which are appropriate and make rooms with adequate facilities?”. By using the concept of "Local Wisdom" by prioritizing the function of building the PMI building and using the Symbolism Method in the design.

PERANCANGAN PALANG MERAH INDONESIA KOTA MUARA TEWEH

The Indonesian Red Cross, which is often known by the abbreviation PMI, is a national association organization located in Indonesia and engaged in the humanitarian field. The activity that was first carried out by PMI was to help victims of the Indonesian Revolutionary War of Independence and return victims of Allied and Japanese prisoners of war so that the Indonesian Red Cross has gained international recognition. The purpose of the design this time is "How to design the Muara Teweh Indonesian Red Cross (PMI) building which is able to fulfill the activities of the volunteers and their working staff by providing assistance and blood services to the people in the city of Muara Teweh which are appropriate and make rooms with adequate facilities ?”. By using the concept of "Local Wisdom" by prioritizing the function of building the PMI building and using the Symbolism Method in the design

The last Japanese prisoner of war of camp No. 16 of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in the Khabarovsk Territory. A sketch about the history of the repatriation of Japanese prisoners of war in 1956

The last Japanese prisoner of war of camp No. 16 of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in the Khabarovsk Territory. A sketch about the history of the repatriation of Japanese prisoners of war in 1956

Hugh James Hoyland

Hugh James Hoyland (“Jim”) was a general practitioner of the old school. He started in rural Painswick in the Cotswolds in 1959, initially helping Dr Tinker, for whom four years...

William Frankland: the “grandfather of allergy”

Photo credit: Imperial College London William Frankland (“Bill”), the British clinical allergist who transformed global understanding of allergies, has died aged 108. He developed the pollen count in order to...

Songs of Japanese Prisoners of War in the Soviet Union after World War II

Abstract The Second World War ended with Japan’s capitulation after the disastrous nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Subsequently, approximately 700,000 Japanese soldiers were selected as captives to undertake physical labour in Soviet prison camps. After returning to Japan, some of them wrote about their lives in the Soviet Union, drew pictures about their experiences, or wrote about their favourite songs that they had sung during their imprisonment. My study of various reports of Japanese prisoners of war (POWs) after the Second World War surprisingly revealed that not only traumatic conditions during forced labour were published, but also social interactions in the form of joint artistic activities such as making music, producing theatre plays, and staging sports competitions. The prisoners have often retrospectively described these as strikingly positive events during their years of internment in the Soviet Union. This article analyses a total of thirty-four songs sung and composed by Japanese POWs during captivity on a lyrical level (text analysis). In doing so, I adopt a new approach to interpreting the social conditions during the imprisonment of Japanese soldiers in the Soviet Union.

КУЛЬТУРНО-МАССОВАЯ РАБОТА СРЕДИ ЯПОНСКИХ ВОЕННОПЛЕННЫХ И ИХ ТВОРЧЕСТВО В ЛАГЕРЯХ НА ТЕРРИТОРИИ СССР (ОТЕЧЕСТВЕННАЯ ИСТОРИОГРАФИЯ)

The article for the first time examines domestic historiography of cultural and mass work among the Japanese prisoners of war and their creative activity in the NKVD-MIA camps. The author analyses the domestic publications of the turn of the XX-XXI centuries describing the forms, trends, peculiarities and outcomes of cultural and mass work among Kwantung army prisoners and their creative activity during their stay in the Soviet Union. The historiographical analysis of the problem has allowed the author to identify the achievements and shortcomings of previous studies, to outline prospects for further research.

Early ancient sublineages of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing genotype: unexpected clues from phylogenomics of the pathogen and human history

ObjectiveThe Mycobacterium tuberculosis Beijing family is an epidemiologically important lineage subdivided into large-scale phylogenetic sublineages: ancient, endemic in East Asia, and global modern. Here, we analysed ancient sublineages of the Beijing genotype in the Omsk region of southwestern Siberia, an intriguing area at the intersection of European Russia, Siberia, and Central Asia. MethodsThe study included 423 M. tuberculosis strains isolated in 2013–2017 and subjected to drug susceptibility testing, genotyping, and whole genome sequencing. ResultsThe Beijing genotype constituted 280 out of 423 strains. Forty Beijing strains belonged to the early ancient sublineage (wild type mutT4-48). Of these, 11 belonged to the 14717-15 MIRU-VNTR cluster and had intact RD181, 29 belonged to the 1071-32 cluster and had the RD181 deletion. Thirty-nine ancient strains were multidrug-resistant (MDR) and 20 pre-extensively drug resistant (XDR)/XDR. Comparison with global data demonstrated that these clones circulate mainly in Asian Russia with certain phylogenetic affinity to strains from Japan, Korea, and northeastern China. The genome-wide analysis revealed 29–37 single nucleotide polymorphism distances between isolates from different Russian regions within these two clusters. ConclusionsBased on phylogenetic, phylogeographic, genomic, and historical data, we hypothesize that these two clones or their direct ancestors were probably brought to Russia ∼70 years ago after the Second World War with Japanese prisoners of war and, until recently, were mainly circulating in Siberia and the Far East. Their elevated prevalence in Omsk along with the extremely strong association with not only MDR but also pre-XDR/XDR also observed in other locations highlight their epidemic potential and the need for monitoring and attention from health authorities.

Переписка японских военнопленных в лагерях НКВД—МВД СССР (1945—1956 гг.): обзор отечественной и зарубежной историографии

For the first time the features of lighting by domestic and foreign researchers the correspondence of Japanese prisoners of war in the camps of the People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs-Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR (1945-1956) are considered. The article contains a historiographical analysis of the work of historians of Russia, Kazakhstan, Switzerland, Japan, published in the period from 1992 to 2017, which in varying degrees covered the correspondence of Japanese prisoners of war. Data on various aspects of the topic contained in the theses and monographs, scholarly articles by Russian and foreign researchers are identified and analyzed. The author pointed out that to date, despite the large number of scientific papers on Japanese prisoners of war, any work is not published devoted to the correspondence of the Japanese prisoners of war in camps in the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, the question reflects in dissertations, monographs, scientific articles on foreign prisoners of war of World war II in the Soviet Union. However, the analysis of historians’ coverage of Japanese prisoners of war correspondence with family and friends is undertaken in this article for the first time. Both achievements and understudied aspects of the problem are identified. A number of issues and promising directions that require further study are revealed.

Основные способы решения кадровой проблемы в колхозах Красноярского края в послевоенные годы (1946-1953)

The key issue of the article is the staff resources on collective farms in Krasnoyarsk Krai by the beginning of the post-war reconstruction and agriculture development. The labor force sources are identified and the efficiency of their attraction is assessed. The study is based on the archival materials introduced for the first time. The author points out that solving the problem of labor shortages caused by the great Patriotic war was necessary for the successful agriculture recovery and development in the USSR and in Krasnoyarsk Krai in particular. During the war the number of productive farmers declined by more than 50 % in the region. The situation was gradually improved due to the armed forces demobilization. Returning to collective farms and employment of about 80 thousand productive farmers were important factors of agricultural development. Moreover, measures were taken to employ disabled veterans. All of the above allowed partially to fill the gaps of staff shortage. Furthermore, forced labor was used to compensate for labor shortages as well. The article contains the following facts: at the end of the war politically unreliable Russians, Poles, Soviet Germans, Ukrainian and Baltic collaborators were delivered from the former occupied European part of the country. Eventually, 170 thousand deportees, resettled in 37 districts, were registered in the region in 1953. Most of their families were placed in the local farms, where they had to work. Japanese prisoners of war were another category of forced laborers. However, in March 1946 only 2.6 % of the total number of war prisoners were involved in agriculture, and their work was ineffective due to their weak health. In addition, the regional authorities repeatedly appealed to the USSR Council of Ministers with requests for relocation of the working-age population from other areas to the region. 4,000 families of farmers were to be resettled to the region in 1952-1953. However, the regional authorities were unable to provide essential reception, housing and arrange the workflow. As a result, the resettlement process was suspended. The author also concludes that some results were obtained through the managing staff reduction policy, the involvement of farm heads' families in work. There were preschools in the farms for women with young children to be able to work. Medical and health institutions, health resorts and children's camps opened, which reduced people's temporary incapacity and improved their health. The author comes to a conclusion that the regional and national authorities took various measures to solve the staff issue in the collective farms. There were a lot of important and difference-making processes: the external human resources inflow (demobilization, migration, using prisoner labor, farm families and collective farms resettlement), internal farmers redistribution from administrative work to production and working-age women involvement. These measures contributed to the improvement of collective farms staff potential; however, solving the problem and providing workers to every farm in the region was an impossible task.

Газета «Ниппон симбун» как важный инструмент в политической работе среди японских военнопленных в СССР (обзор отечественной историографии)

The publications of Russian historians on the use of newspaper “Nippon Shimbun” (“Japanese newspaper”) in political work among the Japanese prisoners of war in Soviet Union is considered. It was the only newspaper published in the Soviet Union in Japanese language for Japanese prisoners of war. The article contains a historiographical analysis of works published in Russia in the period from 1994 to 2016. The author reveals the results of the work of researchers studying the use of the newspaper in the ideological “treatment” of prisoners of war. Both the successes and achievements of researchers and insufficiently studied aspects of the topic are determined and recorded. Among under-researched problems of the topic there are members of the newspaper editorial office, frequency of publication, circulation, as well as different periods in the editorial work and functions of the newspaper at different stages of political work among the Japanese prisoners of war. Absent monographs and scientific articles and reports on the newspaper “Nippon Shimbun” in Russian historiography is stated although it was published from 1945 to late 1949 by relatively large quantities. The author indicates clearly the lack of studying the work of I. I. Kovalenko as editor-in-chief. The advisability of preparing and publishing the collection of documents on political work among the Japanese POWs in the Soviet Union, which contained materials on the paper, practice of using it in political work.

Отечественная историография пребывания японских военнопленных на территории Хакасии в 1945—1947 гг.

The domestic historiography of stay of Japanese prisoners of war in the territory of Khakass Autonomous region in 1945-1947 is considered for the first time. The article contains a historiographical analysis of the works of Russian historians, published in the period from 1994 to 2016, which addresses the issues of stay of Japanese prisoners of war on the territory of Khakassia. The author noted the lack of scholarly monographs on Japanese prisoners placed in the Khakass Autonomous region after the second world war. Information on the presence of Japanese prisoners of war in the region contained in the few publications on Japanese prisoners, located in the Krasnoyarsk region, and a number of historians of foreign prisoners of war of the second world war in Siberia is identified and analyzed. Insufficient knowledge of a number of questions of stay of Japanese prisoners of war on the territory of Khakassia is stated. Historical publications about the Japanese prisoners, located in Krasnoyarsk Region, obviously pay the authors’ attention to the study of Japanese prisoners of war camp No. 34, which office and camp departments were located outside of the Republic of Khakassia. Significantly less attention is paid to the Khakass camp No. 33. The greatest contribution to the study of different aspects of stay of Japanese prisoners of war on the territory of Khakass Autonomous region in the years 1945-1947 made Krasnoyarsk historian M. N. Spiridonov. But after the publication of the monograph dedicated to the Japanese prisoners of war located in Krasnoyarsk Region (2003), he did not publish no single work on the subject. The author believes that, in addition to more in-depth study of some insufficiently studied questions of the topic, it is advisable to prepare and publish a collection of papers on various aspects of stay of Japanese prisoners of war on the territory of Khakassia.

JAPANESE MILITARY MEMBERS IN THE BURYAT-MONGOLIAN ASSR (1945-1948): REVIEW OF THE NATIONAL HISTORIOGRAPHY

The article deals with the national historiography of problems of the stay of Japanese prisoners of war in the territory of the Buryat-Mongolian ASSR in 1945-1948. The author identified a set of works created in the period from 1992 to the present. Areas for studying the topic are identified, problem-thematic blocks are identified, and promising directions for further research are formulated. The author noted that the greatest progress in the study of the topic issues took place in the 1990s. A significant contribution to the study of the problem in the first half of the 1990s. of staying of Japanese prisoners of war in the Buryat-Mongolian ASSR territory in 1945-1948 brought S.I. Kuznetsov, O.D. Bazarov and V.B. Garmayev. The author stated that in the second half of the 1990s., on this topic, the candidate’s dissertation was defended and a monographic study published (O.D. Bazarov), which significantly clarified the situation of Japanese prisoners of war in the republic, their livelihood and employment in the economy of the region. The author found almost complete absence of scientific works on the topic in the subsequent period (2000-2017). As a result, the author came to the conclusion that there had been insufficient knowledge of a number of questions about the stay of Japanese prisoners of war in the BuryatMongolian ASSR territory in 1945-1948. The article also notes the absence of documentary collections dedicated to Japanese prisoners of war on the Buryatia territory. Prospective directions of the study are the preparation of a relevant section on the stay of Japanese prisoners in the BuryatMongolian ASSR for a comprehensive study of the history of Buryatia in the post-war period, as well as the publication of a collection of documents reflecting the life and employment of Japanese prisoners of war in the region.

“The Enemy Within Never Did Without”: German and Japanese Prisoners of War at Camp Huntsville, 1942–1945 ed. by Jeffrey L. Littlejohn and Charles H. Ford

Reviewed by: “The Enemy Within Never Did Without”: German and Japanese Prisoners of War at Camp Huntsville, 1942–1945 ed. by Jeffrey L. Littlejohn and Charles H. Ford Martin T. Olliff “The Enemy Within Never Did Without”: German and Japanese Prisoners of War at Camp Huntsville, 1942–1945. Edited by Jeffrey L. Littlejohn and Charles H. Ford. (Huntsville: Texas Review Press, 2015. Pp. viii, 162. Paper, $18.95, ISBN 978-1-68003-028-0.) This study of the World War II prisoner of war (POW) camp at Huntsville, Texas, combines academic and public history nicely. It emerged from a 2012 seminar about the POW camp taught by Jeffrey L. Littlejohn at Sam Houston State University and incorporates work from his students, but it also came about from the desire of the community to remember the camp as well as the (unstated) desire of the university community to document its Country Campus [End Page 971] that occupied the site of the camp into the 1960s. Editors Littlejohn and his writing partner, Charles H. Ford of Norfolk State University in Virginia, organize the short narrative into six chapters that track the camp’s existence from its origins through its postwar existence, followed by a full transcript of the Geneva Convention of 1929 and endnotes. The work contains neither a bibliography, largely because it relies heavily on primary sources from the National Archives, nor an index. Each chapter is well illustrated and divided by subheadings, which make the first chapter about the camp’s origins seem syncopated. The study becomes more sustained in the next three chapters concerning European internees; this section is the book’s real strength as well as its greatest appeal to readers outside the local community. Chapter 2 discusses the arrival of Afrika Korps prisoners in 1943 and their daily lives, camp conditions, diet, and the use of prisoners as labor for the local cotton and timber industries. Chapter 3 deals with the domination of the camp population by hard-core Nazi prisoners, a prison riot, and the baffling response of camp commanders to transfer anti-Nazi German prisoners even though Camp Alva, Oklahoma, was designated to receive the Nazis. Chapter 4 examines the history and morality of political reeducation of prisoners that occurred in the wake of the riot in November 1943. When Germany surrendered in May 1945, all European prisoners were repatriated or transferred. After Japan surrendered, Camp Huntsville took in either 160 or 205 (the authors are unclear) Japanese prisoners between October and December 1945 to reeducate them in an attempt to instill American democratic values into postwar Japanese society. This experiment was spearheaded by the State Department’s John Emmerson and involved Sam Houston State Teacher College faculty. Chapter 5 provides an incisive critique of the reeducation program, but its discussion of this fascinating episode is hampered by the short time the Japanese prisoners were at the camp and the dearth of sources compared with those concerning German and Italian prisoners. “The Enemy Within Never Did Without”: German and Japanese Prisoners of War at Camp Huntsville, 1942–1945 expands our knowledge of POW camps scattered across the United States. The story of the Huntsville camp’s origins and its European prisoners comports with similar histories of other camps, and the history of its Japanese reeducation program raises a number of intriguing research questions. The book would have benefited from a stronger editorial hand, as its narrative is slightly uneven and contains some noticeable typographical errors. In addition, the title is not satisfactorily explained, though the narrative alludes to it. Nevertheless, the study is a good model for collaborative historical publication and a worthwhile addition to the literature. Martin T. Olliff Troy University Copyright © 2016 The Southern Historical Association

ABSTRACTS OF THESIS ABOUT THE JAPANESE PRISONERS OF WAR IN THE USSR (1945-1956) AS THE HISTORIOGRAPHICAL SOURCE

The paper first presents the results of research of abstracts of candidate and doctoral thesis, defended in Russia in the period of 1994-2016, which cover issues of stay of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union in the period 1945-1956. It is noted that until 1994 defense of the thesis was not, because theme of Japanese prisoners of war in the Soviet Union is one of the newest in Russian historiography; it ceased to be a “closed” only at the turn of the 1980s and 1990s. Analysis of abstracts was conducted on a number of parameters, presented in the structure of the article: number of thesis (respectively, abstracts), years of defenses, specialty; organization, which performed the thesis; institutional aspects of defense; supervisors (consultants); opponents; leading organizations; object and subject of research; source base; methodology. The author concluded that sufficiently serious consideration by candidates mandatory sections of dissertations on historical sciences. The absence in one case section “methodology” was caused, in our opinion, the situation of the methodological uncertainty faced by applicants in the 1990s and early 2000s. The author noted the presence in the vast majority abstracts solid characteristics of the source base studies that indicates a serious search and research work of the authors and gives reasons to believe sufficient deep study of their thesis problems. The author concluded that the studied abstracts of thesis are very important historiographical source.

Prisoner Number 600,001: Rethinking Japan, China, and the Korean War 1950–1953

Among more than 100,000 prisoners captured by United Nations forces in the Korean War, there was just one Japanese prisoner of war (POW). Matsushita Kazutoshi, Prisoner Number 600,001, had served in the Japanese army in China, both Nationalist and Communist armies in the Chinese Civil War, and in the Chinese People's Volunteers in North Korea, and was to end his military career in the ranks of the South Korean army. Using his forgotten story as a prism, this article explores neglected transborder dimensions of the Korean War. It argues the need to pay closer attention to the historical continuities linking the Asia-Pacific War and Chinese Civil War to the Korean War; it reconsiders the nature of Japan's connections to the conflict in Korea and reconceptualizes the UN POW camps as sites of ongoing Chinese and Korean civil wars.

The Befriended Enemy: German Prisoners of War in Michigan

The Befriended Enemy: German Prisoners of War in Michigan By Kevin T Hall There are many widely known stories of American prisoners of war (POWs) in Germany during the Second World War, from both the firsthand accounts of the prisoners themselves and the tales told by liberating troops. Several books and articles have described the health standards, physical treatment, food rations, and other aspects of prison camp life for American POWs.1 The experiences of German POWs in the United States, however, have not received as much attention, and certainly scholars have written little about Michigan. This is curious, for while there were nearly 95,000 American POWs in Germany, there were over 370,000 German POWs in the United States (and this figure does not include Italian and Japanese POWs).2 There were five hundred camps throughout the United States, thirty-two in Michigan alone, providing an indelible experience for both German prisoners and the Americans they interacted with. German POWs began arriving in 1942 when U-Boote (submarines) were sunk off the East Coast; more arrived after the defeat of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel’s 1943 Afrikakorps and from the Italian and French campaigns of 1944 and 1945.3 The US War Department brought the POWs to the States via empty returning troop ships because it proved 1 See Lewis Carlson, We Were Each Other’s Prisoners: An Oral History of World War II American and German Prisoners of War (New York: Basic Books, 1997); Roger Cohen, Soldiers and Slaves: American POWs Trapped by the Nazis’ Final Gamble (New York: Anchor Books, 2006); Marc Lanas, The Fallen: A True Story of American POWs and Japanese Wartime Atrocities (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004); Thomas Saylor, Long Hard Road: American POWs During World War II (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2007); Harry Spiller, Prisoners of Nazis: Accounts by American POWs in World War II (Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Inc., 1997). 2 Allen K. Powell, Splinter of a Nation: German Prisoners of War in Utah (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1989), 263. 3 Robert Billinger, Jr. Hitler’s Soldiers in the Sunshine State (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000), XIV. THE MICHIGAN HISTORICAL REVIEW 41:1 (SPRING 2015): 57-79© 2015 Central Michigan University. ISSN 0890-1686 All rights reserved 58 The Michigan Historical Review too difficult to feed and house them in any war zone.4 Additionally, help was needed on the home front as there were shortages in manpower, particularly in agriculture and industry, that not even the rising numbers of women workers could alleviate.5 Over fifty years after the war’s end, Konrad Kreiten recalled his trip to Michigan as a seventeen-year old German POW: “it took more than three weeks [from Cherbourg, France] before our convoy of more than 200 ships at last reached the port of Boston, after passing through storms and rain.”6 Though those three weeks no doubt seemed long to the prisoners, the journey could take up to six weeks due to German UBoats hunting for Allied ships.7 Norfolk, Virginia, and New York were also ports of entry for the exhausted POWs, who Kreiten noted were “dirty, lousy, and seasick because the crossing had not taken place on a luxury steamer, but under [the] deck of a Liberty transport ship.”8 Immediately upon arrival in the United States, many German POWs were dismayed to see that the Nazi propaganda they had been subjected to for years was, in fact, a lie; the United States, particularly New York, had not been bombed to ruins.9 Seeing this, the young POW later recalled “our morale could not become worse,” adding to the disgrace of defeat and the uncertainty of what would happen to them next.10 After disembarking, prisoners showered, had their old clothes disinfected, received new garments (stamped with “PW”), and were examined by doctors.11 They then boarded Pullman cars, where Kreiten recalled they were “amazed when some black soldiers served us black coffee, bread, butter, jam and biscuits. Each of us received in the meantime a bag with a towel, soap, toothpaste, and a tooth brush. We 4 Judith Gansberg, Stalag U.S.A. (Toronto: Fitzhenry & Whiteside...

“As The Days Go By: Throbs of Grateful Hearts”: Reeducation Under the Japanese of Filipino POWs at Camp Del Pilar, Dau, Pampanga, 1942

This research note presents samples of previously unpublished testimonial letters written by Filipino officer prisoners of war (POW) to their Japanese POW camp commander in 1942. A preface to these letters, 184 in all and kept in the US National Archives, provides a glimpse of the day-to-day activities of the reeducation propaganda conducted by the Japanese Propaganda Corps in Camp Del Pilar, Dau, Pampanga. The Filipino officers’ expressions of gratitude showered upon the Japanese show another dimension of the otherwise tumultuous occupation period. Keywords: Second World War • Japanese occupation • wartime propaganda • documentary sources • Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

The re-examination of Chiang Kai-shek's returning virtue for malice policy towards Japan after the victory of the Anti-Japanese War

After victory in the Anti-Japanese War, Chiang Kai-shek issued the famous radio speech “Letter to Soldiers and Civilians of the Whole Nation as well as the Peoples of the World after the Victory of the Anti-Japanese War.” The main idea of this speech was long interpreted as “returning virtue for malice” (or “good for evil”), a basic principle of the Kuomintang's policy towards Japan. Many scholars who have considered the returning virtue for malice policy in the postwar period include the following major issues: first, China repatriated Japanese prisoners of war and the Japanese diaspora with mercy; second, China allowed the Tenno, or imperial, system to be preserved in Japan; third, China did not participate in the occupation of Japan; and fourth, China gave up the right to ask for war reparations from Japan. This article examines the above four issues to reevaluate the returning virtue for malice policy. The first issue seems to reflect the Chinese national character of being lenient with others. However, it was in fact due to Chiang's anti-Communist strategy and the declared policy of the United States of eradicating Japan's influence in China. With regard to the second issue, Chiang's attitude was merely to let the Japanese people make their own choice, while the fate of the Japanese Tenno system was entirely determined by the US occupation authority, on which Chiang had little influence. The third issue was mainly the outcome of Chiang's focus on domestic political struggle in the postwar era in China. As for war reparations, China actually made efforts to obtain them in the beginning, but had to give up its right eventually. The decision-making process in the Kuomintang government was restrained by American policy and subordinated to Japanese pressure. Thus, it is not persuasive to summarize the basic principle of Kuomintang postwar policy towards Japan as returning virtue for malice.

Sir Michael Francis Addison Woodruff (1911–2001) FRS DSc MD MS FRCS

Michael Woodruff performed the first successful renal transplant in the UK and described the technique of joining the ureter of the transplant to the bladder. He contributed to all aspects of transplantation biology and was responsible for the design of the first purpose-built transplant unit in the world. As a Japanese prisoner of war at Changi in Singapore, Michael Woodruff studied the effects of malnutrition and devised a machine for extracting vitamins and trace elements from grass. After the war he demonstrated that the anterior chamber of the eye was an immunologically privileged site. He was the first person to describe 'adaptation'. He showed that antilymphocytic serum was effective as an immunosuppressive agent for homografts.