Jack Pine Wood Research Articles

3D printing of biodegradable biocomposites based on forest industrial residues by fused deposition modeling

This study investigated the impact of industrial forest residues (IFR) type and proportion on 3D-printed biocomposites (BC). Fused deposition modeling (FDM) produced BC containing up to 20 % Jack pine sawdust, wood ashes, cellulose fibers, and polylactic acid (PLA). The BC thermal stability, surface chemistry, microstructure, and physical and mechanical were investigated. Thermal stability investigations revealed that adding IRF resulted in a decline in the PLA degradation temperature, an increase in the residual mass, a decrease in the glass transition temperature, and an improvement in crystallinity. Add IRF to PLA showed an important reduction in ductility, a consistent reduction of the tensile and flexural strengths with increasing proportion but only a slight or a non-significant reduction the modulus of elasticity. Adding forest waste filler to pure PLA increased the water absorption (WA) and dimensional accuracy (TA) of the biocomposites, which was expected due to the hydrophilic character of fillers. The microstructural analysis demonstrated that a higher filler level resulted in a greater porosity, roughness, and visible filler pull-out on the filament and printed parts surfaces. Surface chemistry analysis suggested poor interactions between the PLA and the fillers and consequently poor interfacial adhesion. Furthermore, the rheological investigations confirmed that the complex viscosity and storage modulus of PLA-Jack pine's sawdust and PLA-cellulose fibers increased with filler. In contrast, the PLA-wood ashes showed opposite results. Using 3D-printed biodegradable biocomposites provided a sustainable option for reducing dependence on non-renewable plastic, valorizing the value chain of forest products, and promoting the circular economy.

Dissolved pyrogenic carbon leaching in soil: Effects of soil depth and pyrolysis temperature

Pyrogenic organic carbon (PyC) is found in soils as a heterogeneous mixture of thermally altered plant residues that range in their susceptibility to losses via mineralization, leaching, and erosion. Leaching of PyC as DOC (DPyC) within the soil profile is likely influenced by the chemical composition of solid PyC and the dominant soil processes and properties at a particular depth. Here we report the results of a 2-year laboratory decomposition and leaching study designed to investigate the interactive effects of pyrolysis temperature levels (no pyrolysis, 300 °C, and 450 °C) and soil depth (surface soil, 0–10 cm depth; subsurface soil, 50–70 cm depth) on losses of 13C-labeled jack pine (Pinus banksiana) wood, wood pyrolyzed at 300 °C (PyC300) and wood pyrolyzed at 450 °C (PyC450) as dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Losses of wood and PyC in the 13C- DOC pool were measured in leachates drained from soils once a month over the course of 1 year, and at one single leaching event after 2 years. We found that pyrolysis temperature levels interacted with time and soil depth to affect losses of wood and PyC as DOC throughout the 1-year incubation and leaching study, with greater DOC losses from wood in surface soil (0.73 ± 0.076% of added C) than in subsurface soil (0.40 ± 0.063% of added C) averaged across sampling time. Monthly DOC losses from PyC were not affected by soil depth. Cumulative data indicated a small contribution of wood (2.86 ± 0.07%), PyC300 (0.40 ± 0.04%), and PyC450 (0.16 ± 0.01%) to total DOC leached from soils. DOC losses from wood and PyC300 (as a proportion of added C) were greater in surface soil than in subsurface soil, whereas DOC losses from PyC450 were unaffected by differences between surface and subsurface soil. Losses of DOC were greater from PyC300 than from PyC450 in surface soil, with no significant differences in DOC losses between PyC300 and PyC450 in subsurface soil. One single leaching event at the end of the 2-year decomposition study resulted in higher DOC losses from wood in subsurface soil than in surface soil likely due to desorption, and no differences in DOC losses between PyC300 and PyC450 regardless of soil depth. Our results suggest strong interactions between the initial physicochemical composition of organic C inputs and soil properties (soil depth as a proxy) that control the mobility and transport of PyC and should be better represented in Earth system models.

Serviceability limit state model for fungal growth on wood materials in the built environment

Fungal (mould) growth in wood based building components could have significant detrimental effects on the operational and structural requirements of the built environment. Quite naturally, building designers and material scientists are keen to predict mould growth in wood and wood based building materials. Available surface mould growth models primarily predict the levels of mould growth in different environmental and material conditions. However, modern design practices allow acceptable limit of risk in the design process. Hence, a probabilistic mould growth model is required which takes into account risk tolerance thresholds for mould growth. This paper presents a research initiative that shifts the mould growth narrative from predicted levels to probabilistic predictions, which is the foundation block associated with limit state design approach, widely used in structural design codes and standards. More specifically, this paper presents a serviceability limit state mould growth model for wood using jack pine (Pinus banksiana) wood and the fungal species Penicillium chrysogenum. The outputs from this model were verified using the results obtained from an experimental roof study that investigated the impacts of different surface treatments on mould growth in ventilated roofs.

Intra-Ring Wood Density and Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity Profiles for Black Spruce and Jack Pine from X-Ray Densitometry and Ultrasonic Wave Velocity Measurement

Currently, ultrasonic measurement is a widely used nondestructive approach to determine wood elastic properties, including the dynamic modulus of elasticity (DMOE). DMOE is determined based on wood density and ultrasonic wave velocity measurement. The use of wood average density to estimate DMOE introduces significant imprecision: Density varies due to intra-tree and intra-ring differences and differing silvicultural treatments. To ensure accurate DMOE assessment, we developed a prototype device to measure ultrasonic wave velocity with the same resolution as that provided by the X-ray densitometer for measuring wood density. A nondestructive method based on X-ray densitometry and the developed prototype was applied to determine radial and intra-ring wood DMOE profiles. This method provides accurate information on wood mechanical properties and their sources of variation. High-order polynomials were used to model intra-ring wood density and DMOE profiles in black spruce and jack pine wood. The transition from earlywood to latewood was defined as the inflection point. High and highly significant correlations were obtained between predicted and measured wood density and DMOE. An examination of the correlations between wood radial growth, density, and DMOE revealed close correlations between density and DMOE in rings, earlywood, and latewood

Interacting Controls of Pyrolysis Temperature and Plant Taxa on the Degradability of PyOM in Fire-Prone Northern Temperate Forest Soil

Tree taxa and pyrolysis temperature are the major controllers of the physicochemical properties of the resultant pyrogenic organic matter (PyOM) produced in fire-prone forests. However, we know little about how these controls determine the residence time of PyOM once introduced to soil. In this study, we tracked the fate of 13C-enriched red maple (RM) or jack pine (JP) wood and PyOM, produced over a range of temperatures (200, 300, 450, or 600 °C) added to soil from a northern temperate forest in Michigan, USA. Pyrolysis temperature was the main controller of PyOM-C mineralization rates, with mean residence times (MRT) ranging from ~4 to 450 years for both taxa. The PyOM-C mineralization rates for both taxa and the pyrolysis temperature correlated positively with PyOMw (leachable C content); however, the potential PyOMw contribution to net PyOM-C mineralization was lower for JP (14–65%) than RM (24–84%). The correlation between PyOMw and mineralization rate was strongest where carbonization and the thermochemical conversion of carbohydrates and non-lignin phenols was most pronounced during pyrolysis for each taxa (300 °C for JP and 450 °C for RM). Contrary to expectations, the addition of a labile C source, sucrose, to the soil did not enhance the decomposition of PyOM, indicating that soil microbes were not energy limited in the soil-PyOM system studied (regardless of pyrolysis temperature). Our results showed that while the first-order control on PyOM decomposition in this soil is pyrolysis temperature, wood taxa did affect PyOM-C MRT, likely in part due to differences in the amount of reactive water-soluble C present in PyOM.

Microwave drying kinetics of jack pine wood: determination of phytosanitary efficacy, energy consumption, and mechanical properties

The aims of this study were to determine (1) the effects of microwave irradiation on the drying kinetics of jack pine wood, (2) the phytosanitary efficacy, and (3) the processing energy consumption and mechanical strength of the dried product. Microwave drying experiments were performed at 2.45 GHz frequency and at microwave powers ranging from 300 to 1000 W. Results indicate that higher microwave power and initial wood temperature and lower sample thickness increases the internal sample temperature, improves the drying rate, and reduces both drying time and energy consumption. The microwave irradiation efficacy to sanitize jack pine wood boards was determined in terms of temperature/time combinations based on actual drying kinetics according to standards for phytosanitary measures. The energy required to dry 12 mm thick wood board samples at microwave power ranging from 300 to 1000 W was in the range of 36.4–12.3 MJ/kg of water, respectively, for up to 65% energy consumption savings. The impact of microwave power on the mechanical properties was not statistically significant, although mechanical properties tended to decrease with increasing power.

Tree taxa and pyrolysis temperature interact to control pyrogenic organic matter induced native soil organic carbon priming

Few studies have quantitatively assessed the interacting controls of taxa-specific properties and PyOM production temperature on native soil C (NSC) stabilization/de-stabilization dynamics (i.e. priming effects - PE) because of difficulty in distinctly assessing NSC reactivity apart from added PyOM-C. To quantify PyOM-induced PE, we incubated 13C-enriched jack pine (JP) or red maple (RM) wood and associated 13C-PyOM produced at 200 (PyOM200), 300 (PyOM300), 450 (PyOM450) and 600 (PyOM600) °C in soil from a northern temperate forest (Michigan, U.S.A.) for 10 months. We found that (1) net PE was negative with addition of both wood and PyOM from both taxa, with a 3–40% suppression in mineralization across treatments, (2) RM200, RM450, and RM600 exhibited initial positive PE in the first week of incubation, (3) PyOM300 of both taxa, the temperature associated with initial aromatization and carbohydrate conversion, induced the most negative PE and exhibited the largest increase in soil oxidative enzyme activity in JP300, (4) addition of sucrose to the incubations as labile C, offset negative PE in JP treatments but not in RM treatments and, (5) mean residence times of the fast cycling C pool of NSC were lower (1.4–1.6 d) for RM than for JP (2.9–8.3 d) additions. These results suggest that future changes in tree taxa dominance in fire prone systems could alter soil C stability though introduction of PyOM of distinct, taxa-specific, chemical properties that may be largely controlled by taxa specific temperature thresholds in thermochemical conversion of woody tissues to PyOM.

Combined effect of acetylation and heat treatment on the physical, mechanical and biological behavior of jack pine (Pinus banksiana) wood

A comparative study on the combined effect of heat treatment and acetylation on jack pine wood properties was undertaken and the results were compared with those of each treatment carried out individually. The dimensional stability and mechanical property of wood with different treatments were examined and statistically analyzed. The results demonstrated that combined acetylation of jack pine wood with acetic anhydride and heat treatment at 190 °C has a positive effect on the dimensional stability. Results also suggested that the dimensional stability was affected more than the modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE) by both heat and acetylation treatments under the experimental conditions used. In addition, the hardness increases after high temperature modification but decreases slightly after acetylation. A comprehensive investigation of the effects of heat treatment and acetylation separately and together (combination treatment) on the fungal durability of jack pine wood against a brown rot fungus, Poria placenta (pp), and a white rot fungus, Trametes versicolor (tv) has also been performed. The results indicated that the weight loss caused by fungi is reduced by both modifications. It was also found that combination of heat treatment and acetylation offers additional bioprotection. FTIR results indicated that the heat and acetylation treatments have a significant influence on the chemical properties, but less influence on their structures.

Modeling of Combined Microwave and Convective Drying of Wood: Prediction of Mechanical Behavior via Internal Gas Pressure

The impact of microwave drying on the quality of dried wood remains unclear. Particular attention should be paid in order to optimize the combined microwave and convective drying process. In this study, a comprehensive internal heat and mass transfer model was developed and numerically implemented in order to simulate and understand the physical phenomena occurring inside Jack pine wood during a combined microwave and convective drying process. The model was validated on the basis of the average moisture content curves for drying scenarios at various microwave power levels. According to the simulations results, an increase in microwave power significantly decreases the drying time of Jack pine wood and increases its internal gas pressure, which increases the risk of cracking. However, compared to purely conventional convective drying, combined microwave and convective drying at medium microwave power and air temperature significantly reduces the drying time and maintains the internal gas pressure at reasonable values. At these conditions, the risk of cracking will be diminished. This last result was checked via experimental measurements of the sample strength dried at different microwave power levels. From this study, we can consider that for Jack pine wood, combined microwave and convective drying is a more efficient technology compared to classical convective drying.

Vacuum contact drying kinetics of Jack pine wood and its influence on mechanical properties: industrial applications

Wood can be dried rapidly using combined contact heating and low vacuum. However, the impact on Jack pine wood drying and its mechanical strength remains unclear. The aim of this paper was to determine the kinetics of vacuum contact drying of Jack pine (Pinus banksiana) wood boards (dimensions 50 × 100 × 2480 mm3) under various drying temperatures and vacuum pressures at a pilot scale. Drying temperatures and vacuum pressures ranged from 65 to 95 °C and from 169.32 to 507.96 mbar, respectively. Dried samples were subjected to flexural loading to determine mechanical strength. Results indicated that drying time decreased with higher drying temperature and vacuum pressure, where as decreased vacuum pressure increased the temperature of wood samples at a constant drying temperature. Results also indicated that the mechanical properties of dried samples were affected by drying temperature, vacuum pressure, and lumber grade. Mechanical test results were then compared to those for a conventional drying process, revealing that vacuum contact drying do not have a negative impact on the wood mechanical properties.

Impacts of fiber orientation and milling on observed crystallinity in jack pine

Influences of fiber orientation and milling on wood cellulose crystallinity were studied using jack pine wood. The fiber orientation effects were measured by sampling rectangular wood blocks in radial, tangential, and cross-sectional orientations. The influence of milling was studied by analyzing the unsieved and sieved milled wood fractions (all <1,000 μm). Fiber orientation effect was manifested in both X-ray and Raman measurements and was dependent upon the orientation of the sampled wood blocks. In Raman, the observed crystallinity was similar between the blocks sampled on the tangential and the radial faces. However, the estimated values were 5.5 % lower compared to that measured in a powdered sample pellet. Moreover, in these sampling modes, the orientation of the block with respect to the direction of the electric vector of the laser made a difference only for the tangential mode of sampling. When a wood block was sampled on the cross-sectional face, the observed Raman crystallinity was 3.9 % higher from that of the pellet. The observed crystallinity did not significantly differ with change in sample orientation with respect to the electric vector direction. In contrast, the Segal-WAXS study of the blocks indicated that compared to the pellet, the estimated crystallinities in the radial, tangential, and cross-sectional sampling modes were 5, 2, and 11 % lower, respectively. This suggested that the radial and the tangential faces of the blocks can be used to estimate the crystallinity of wood. With regard to the effect of milling on Raman and Segal-WAXS estimates, the wood crystallinity did not depend upon the particle sizes of the fractionated samples and was similar to that of the original unfractionated ground wood.

Moisture sorption isotherms and thermodynamic properties of Jack pine and palm wood: Comparative study

Currently, the impact of the controlled climate on moisture sorption isotherms of Jack pine and palm wood still remains unclear. The aim of this paper was to determine and compare the moisture sorption isotherms and thermodynamic properties of Jack pine and palm wood. The equilibrium moisture content of wood samples was measured within the range of 5 to 90% relative humidity at 50°C, 60°C, 70°C and 80°C. For both wood varieties, the equilibrium moisture content decreased with increasing temperature, however the effect of temperature is very remarkable for palm wood. The isosteric heat of desorption, the enthalpy and the entropy decreased with the increase of the moisture content. A good straight line correlated differential enthalpy and entropy, according to the enthalpy–entropy compensation theory. The spreading pressure decreased with increasing temperature at a given water activity, and increased with increasing water activity at a constant temperature. Predictive correlations of the two wood properties, based on experimental methods and physical laws, were established and compared.

Durability of thermally modified Pinus banksiana (Jack pine) wood against brown and white rot fungi

The resistance of thermally modified Canadian Pinus banksiana against four wood decaying fungi was evaluated. Wood samples were treated at different temperatures (190, 200 and 210°C) and exposed to three brown rot fungi as well as to a white rot fungus. Results showed that the untreated wood samples lost more weight when exposed to P. placenta, T. versicolor and G. trabeum compared to the weight loss observed in case of C. puteana. Thermal modification at 210°C improved the resistance of Pinus banksiana against G. trabeum and T. versicolor fungi as evident from the fact that reduction in weight loss of wood was found to be 98·3 and 96·3% respectively.

Effect of surface preparation on the wettability of heat-treated jack pine wood surface by different liquids

The objectives of this study are to quantitatively evaluate, using a wetting model, the wettability of three probe liquids with different properties on heat-treated jack pine surfaces prepared by three different types of machining (sanding, planing and sawing) and to compare with those of untreated wood surfaces. The results indicate that the heat-treated wood is wetted less than the untreated wood due to degradation of wood components (hemicelluloses, lignin and cellulose) during heat treatment and it absorbs less liquid. The heat-treated wood becomes most hydrophobic when wood surfaces are sanded by 180-grit paper compared to those prepared by other machining process. Heat-treated wood surfaces are strongly acidic similar to those of untreated wood. Consequently, the basic probe liquid, formamide, shows the highest spreading and penetration rate (K-value) on wood surfaces.

Effect of TiO2-containing nano-coatings on the color protection of heat-treated jack pine

The UV protective coatings were developed by incorporating triazine derivative organic UV stabilizers into inorganic titania particles which were produced by sol–gel method. The objective of this study is to delay the color change of heat-treated wood subjected to outdoor conditions. The protective coatings were prepared in air at room temperature. The coatings were not further treated thermally after their application to heat-sensitive materials. Coatings were applied to heat-treated jack pine wood. Subsequently, accelerated aging tests were carried out using coated and uncoated jack pine samples. The color change of the wood samples was studied, and the results were compared. Also, the morphological analyses were done using XPS after having weathered the wood at different times.

Effects of radial growth, tree age, climate, and seed origin on wood density of diverse jack pine populations

Several models of the effects of silviculture, radial growth, and tree age on wood density have been developed, but they have rarely considered the roles of diverse seed origins and climate. We developed a model to test the effects of radial growth, tree age, climate, and seed-source origins on wood density in 21 diverse populations of jack pine in a common garden in Petawawa, Ontario, Canada over the last 24 years using a linear mixed-effects model. Although we found significant differences in wood density among diverse seed origins, there were no differences between seed origins having the same ring age and ring width, indicating an indirect effect on wood density of seed-source origin via radial growth. High variation in wood density among trees within the same population and between populations indicated high genetic control of wood density. The climate effect was significant on wood density in all populations, but smaller when radial growth was controlled. Climate effect did not differ significantly among populations. Precipitation in July negatively affected latewood density, whereas precipitation in May in the current year and September of the previous year negatively affected earlywood density. We concluded that a single model of jack pine wood density and radial growth could be used, either controlling for climate effects or not, as the relationship between wood density and radial growth is preserved among the diverse populations, and the climate effect controlling for radial growth in the model was only slight.

Evolution of Extractive Composition During Thermal Treatment of Jack Pine

The thermal treatment of wood has many benefits such as better dimensional stability and attractive dark color and does not use toxic chemicals. The resistance against biological decay can be improved when wood is not in contact with ground. On the other hand, after thermal transformation, wood becomes more fragile. The changes of the wood properties are related to the modification of the wood composition. During the thermal treatment, the evaporation of the moisture content is not the only event. Volatile extractives are evacuated from the wood, while new products and by-products of different chemical reactions appear. The comparison of the extracts obtained from untreated and treated wood can help to identify thermo-chemical reactions, taking place during the heat treatment. This article presents the analysis by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS), High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), and Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) of polar and non-polar extracts of untreated and heat-treated North American Jack pine (Pinus banksiana). The study of the impact of maximum heat treatment temperature on the composition of the Jack pine extracts showed that the major part of extractives leaves the wood under 200°C whereas most of the new products appear only above 200°C. While the extractives of the untreated Jack pine are dominated by non-polar components, the thermo-transformation seems to generate mainly polar compounds. However, presence of water vapor increases the portion of polar extractives in wood. Interestingly, an important decrease of concentration of phenolic compounds (such as pinosylvin, pinosylvin monomethyl ether, and pinobanksin) in Jack pine wood was observed between 160–200°C. On the other hand, 4-hydroxy-methylfurfural and vanillin have been identified as compounds generated by the heat treatment above 200°C. The identification of other by-products will be presented in a later paper.

Analysis of Among-Species Variability in Wood Fiber Surface Using DRIFTS and XPS: Effects on Esterification Efficiency

Variability in the chemical composition of surface properties of various wood fibers (eastern white cedar, jack pine, black spruce, and bark) was investigated using diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Both DRIFTS and XPS showed high variability in fiber surface composition between species and between fiber types (sapwood, heartwood, and bark). Fiber surface was modified by esterification reaction using a maleic anhydride polyethylene (MAPE) treatment. DRIFTS failed to assess surface modification, whereas XPS results showed that MAPE treatment increased the surface hydrocarbon concentration of jack pine wood fiber, indicated by a decrease in oxygen–carbon ratio and an increase in relative intensity of the C1 component in the C1s signal. Lignin concentration variability on the fiber surface was determined as the major factor that prevents esterification from taking place.

Mechanical properties of wood treated with PF-pyrolytic oil resins

Jack pine and sugar maple wood samples were treated in a two-step process that involved first a copper chloride or a copper chloride-sodium borate mixture and then a phenol-formaldehyde resin containing a certain percentage of softwood bark pyrolytic oil. Various controls were also prepared for comparison. The modulus of rupture (MOR) of jack pine samples was generally negatively affected by the treatment, the observed values being lower than those of the controls. These values were statistically lower or equal to those of untreated samples. On the other hand, the modulus of elasticity (MOE) of treated jack pine samples was not found to be statistically different from that of the untreated wood. Mechanical properties behaved in a similar way for sugar maple wood. Unlike the other treatments, copper chloride–sodium borate and the resin containing 85% of pyrolytic oil as phenol substitute appeared to slightly improve the mechanical properties of both wood species even if not significantly so. Treatment with PF-pyrolytic oil resin resulted in similar or slightly better mechanical properties when compared to CCA-treated wood. The amount of treating water soluble salts retained in samples after the first treatment had a significant impact on MOR of both wood species and on MOE of sugar maple.

A comparative study on brown-rot fungus decay and subterranean termite resistance of thermally-modified and ACQ-C-treated wood

The resistance of thermally-modified and Alkaline Copper Quaternary type C (ACQ-C) treated aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx), jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.), yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera L.), and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) against the brown-rot fungus (Gloeophyllum trabeum) and Eastern U.S. subterranean termite (Reticulitermes flavipes) was studied. Wood materials were thermally-modified at a temperature of 210 °C for 15 min. ACQ-C was impregnated into yellow-poplar and jack pine wood at three different retention levels and at each level both leaching and non-leaching procedures were conducted. Results indicate that ACQ-C-treated yellow-poplar and jack pine became significantly more resistant to the brown-rot fungus compared to the thermally-modified wood and the untreated control. Thermally-modified yellow-poplar and jack pine were more resistant to this fungus than untreated wood. For aspen and Scots pine, the resistance to G. trabeum was improved after the thermal modification, but it remained susceptible to this brown-rot fungus decay. Termite susceptibility of thermally-modified aspen, jack pine, and yellow-poplar was comparable to that of untreated controls. Significantly greater termite attack occurred on thermally-modified Scots pine wood than it did on untreated wood. This likely is attributed to some compounds contained in Scots pine wood that inhibited termite attack.