Italian Soccer Players Research Articles

All roads lead to Rome? Exploring birthplace effects and the ‘southern question’ in Italian soccer

ABSTRACT The expression “southern question” is used in reference to the poverty and economic underdevelopment, less advanced social relations, and clientelist style of politics that characterize South-Italy compared to North and Central Italy. This study aimed to investigate the presence of the “southern question” in Italian soccer. Accordingly, we examined the birthplace distribution of 2,012 Italian soccer players who have played in any national representative team (U15: n = 466; U16-U21: n = 1,939; Senior Team: n = 217). Chi-square analysis revealed an overrepresentation of players born in North and Central Italy, in all cohorts, compared to national norms (all P values < 0.0001). Odds ratios showed that players born in North and Central Italy had the greatest likelihood of representing Italy internationally at both youth and senior levels compared to players born in South Italy (ranging from 2 to 3.2). Factors that negatively impact upon South-Italy players’ soccer developmental journey have been proposed and discussed.

Maturation Selection Biases and Relative Age Effect in Italian Soccer Players of Different Levels.

Soccer is a sport practiced all over the world, in which players are expected to show specific physical and technical skills. Soccer academies look for young talented individuals to develop promising players. Although several parameters could affect the players' performance, the relative age effect (RAE) and the maturity status appeared debated. Therefore, this study compared the differences in RAE and biological maturity among the players of two Italian soccer teams of different levels and to understand their interaction effects with the competition level on youth players' physical characteristics and abilities. One hundred and sixty-two young soccer players from the U12 to U15 age categories of the elite (n = 98) and non-elite (n = 64) teams were recruited. The prevalence of maturity status and RAE was observed. Many anthropometric parameters, BIA vectors, and motor tests (CMJ, Sprint, RSA) were carried out. The maturity status had a greater effect on several anthropometric characteristics and on 15 m sprint, while it affected the CMJ only in U12 (F = 6.187, p ≤ 0.01). Differently, the RAE seemed to priorly affect the U13 and U15 categories in body composition, whereas its effect appeared on the 15-m sprint (F(3, 45) = 4.147, p ≤ 0.01) and the RSA (F(3, 45) = 3.179, p ≤ 0.05) in the U14 category. In addition, early matured players or those who were born in the first six months presented cellular characteristics similar to adult elite players. Soccer professionals should be encouraged to monitor the maturity status to better interpret changes in the physical performance of young soccer players to guide adequate training plans.

Age-Related Differences in Hamstring Flexibility in Prepubertal Soccer Players: An Exploratory Cross-Sectional Study.

This study aimed to investigate the hamstring flexibility rate among prepubertal soccer players from U8 to U12 and the role of age and soccer years of practice on the course of hamstring flexibility. Six hundred eleven young Italian soccer players from a local soccer school in Turin were recruited for this research and assigned to each group according to their chronological age (U8 = 124 players; U9 = 130 players; U10 = 151 players; U11 = 89 players; and U12 = 120 players). Hamstring flexibility was measured using the Sit and Reach Test (SAR), while data analysis was run using a one-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA). Furthermore, Tuckey’s post hoc was used to determine differences among the classes of age. Finally, a bivariate ordinal regression analysis was used to evaluate a potential association between age categories and hamstrings flexibility. In addition, multivariable ordinal regression was used to analyze this relationship adjusted for the Body Mass Index (BMI). The one-way ANOVA showed significant differences in flexibility among groups (F = 32.76, P < 0.0001). Tuckey’s post hoc identified significant differences between U8 and U10 (p < 0.01; −2,39 cm of hamstring stretching), U8 and U11 (p < 0.05; −2.19 cm), U8 and U12 (p < 0.0001; −5.90), U9 and U12 (p < 0.0001; −4.98 cm), U10 and U12 (p < 0.0001; −3.5 cm), U11 and U12 (p < 0,001; −3.70 cm). In the bivariate ordinal regression analysis, there was a negative association between the age categories and hamstrings flexibility (R2 = 0.137; p < 0.0001). The association persisted in multivariable ordinal regression analysis adjusted for BMI (R2 = 0.138; p < 0.0001). This study underlines changes in hamstring flexibility across different age groups of prepubertal soccer players. The older and more experienced in soccer are less flexible than the younger, considering the hamstring muscles. Thus, appropriate stretching protocols should be included in prepubertal soccer training to avoid the risk of lead players to excess hamstring tightness.

Confirmation of early non-bulbar onset of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in Spanish league soccer players.

ObjectiveSports-related activity has been proposed as a risk factor for ALS, particularly among professionals playing American football and soccer, with a reported prevalence between two and forty times higher than the general population. Early onset (by two decades) was described among Italian soccer players as early as 2005. This study aims to characterise the phenotype of seven Spanish retired professional and semi-professional soccer players. MethodsThe cases were identified using the following sources: (i) personal archives from a leading ALS Unit, (ii) PubMed and specialised websites, and (iii) self-reports of patients in the media. Age and site of onset, survival time, history of trauma, playing position and time between retirement and first symptoms were investigated for soccer players in the Spanish league diagnosed between 2000 and 2020. ResultsSeven ALS cases were identified. The mean age at onset was 41.5 years (SD 9.2, median 45.5, range 31.5–51.2). Onset was bulbar in one individual, while six experienced spinal onset. Three patients had the flail arm syndrome variant. Two cases were goalkeepers, two defenders and three midfielders. Four had a history of trauma (two serious). Survival time for the two deceased patients was 71.8 months. Mean time between retirement and first symptoms was 9.4 years (SD 8.0, median 15.2, range 0.1–17.5). ConclusionsOur study has the largest sample size of non-Italian league soccer professionals and semi-professionals, and our results corroborate early onset (by 23.7 years). Unlike the Italian cohorts, bulbar onset is rare, and upper limb onset is most common.

Anthropometric and Functional Profile of Selected vs. Non-Selected 13-to-17-Year-Old Soccer Players.

The purpose of this study was to compare anthropometric and functional profiles of 13-to-17-year-old soccer players according to their competitive level. Height, body mass, percentage of body fat, countermovement jump height, change of direction ability, 5- and 15-m sprint times, repeated sprint ability (RSA), intermittent recovery performance, and dribbling skills were collected in 115 young Italian soccer players. Players were divided into selected (i.e., competing at national level, n = 17 U15 and 47 U17) and non-selected (i.e., competing at regional level, n = 43 U15 and 8 U17) groups. U17 selected players were taller, quicker over 5 and 15 m, more agile, and had better RSA, prolonged intermittent recovery ability, and dribbling skills than their non-selected counterparts (d = 0.28–0.55, p < 0.05). In particular, selected players showed lower times on the first three and the last shuttle of the RSA test (d = 0.28–0.34, p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed in U15 players (p > 0.05). Discriminant analysis revealed that dribbling skills, 15-m sprint time, and height best discriminate U17 players by competitive level (p < 0.001). Anthropometric characteristics and functional abilities can discriminate across competitive standards between male U17 but not U15 soccer players. In particular, these findings suggest the importance of dribbling skills, 15-m sprint, and height in U17 players.

Effect of a Habitual Late-Evening Physical Task on Sleep Quality in Neither-Type Soccer Players.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to investigate objective and subjective sleep quality, daytime tiredness and sleepiness in response to a late-evening high intensity interval training (HIIT) session in neither-type soccer players that habitually trained late in the day. This is the first study that considered both athletes’ chronotype and habitual training time as crucial factors when assessing sleep quality in relation to an evening physical task.Methods: In this longitudinal, prospective, observational study, 14 Italian soccer players were recruited (mean age: 26.1 ± 4.5 years; height: 1.81 ± 0.06 m; weight: 78.9 ± 6.1 kg) and performed an extra-routine 4 × 4-min HIIT session at 09:00 p.m. Players used to train always between 09:00 and 11:00 p.m during the competitive season. All subjects wore an actigraph to evaluate their objective sleep parameters and a sleep diary was used to record subjective values of sleep quality, daytime tiredness, and daytime sleepiness. All data were analyzed as: the mean of the two nights before (PRE), the night after (POST 1), and the mean of the two nights after (POST 2) the extra-routine HIIT session. The subjects’ chronotype was assessed by the morningness-eveningness questionnaire (MEQ).Results: All players were classified as N-types (mean MEQ score: 49.4 ± 3.7). None of the actigraph parameters nor the subjective values of sleep quality, tiredness, and sleepiness showed significant changes in PRE, POST 1, and POST 2.Conclusion: The results of our study added more information regarding sleep quality outcomes in response to a late-evening HIIT session. Athletic trainers and medical staff should always control for chronotype and habitual training time when assessing variations to sleep quality in athletes.

PPARα gene variants as predicted performance-enhancing polymorphisms in professional Italian soccer players.

BackgroundThe PPARα gene encodes the peroxisome proliferator-activator receptor alpha, a central regulator of expression of other genes involved in fatty acid metabolism. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of G allele of the PPARα intron 7 G/C polymorphism (rs4253778) in professional Italian soccer players.MethodsSixty professional soccer players and 30 sedentary volunteers were enrolled in the study. Samples of venous blood were obtained at rest, in the morning, by conventional clinical procedures; blood serum was collected and total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides were measured. An aliquot of anticoagulant-treated blood was used to prepare genomic DNA from whole blood. The G/C polymorphic site in PPARα intron 7 was scanned by using the PCR-RFLP (polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism) protocol with TaqI enzyme.ResultsWe found variations in genotype distribution of PPARα polymorphism between professional soccer players and sedentary volunteers. Particularly, G alleles and the GG genotype were significantly more frequent in soccer players compared with healthy controls (64% versus 48%). No significant correlations were found between lipid profile and genotype background.ConclusionPrevious results demonstrated an association of intron 7 G allele as well as the GG genotype in endurance athletes. Our result suggests that this is the case also in professional soccer players.

New Genetic Model for Predicting Phenotype Traits in Sports

The aim of the current study was to construct a genetic model with a new algorithm for predicting athletic-performance variability based on genetic variations. The influence of 6 polymorphisms (ACE, ACTN-3, BDKRB2, VDR-ApaI, VDR-BsmI, and VDR-FokI) on vertical jump was studied in top-level male Italian soccer players (n = 90). First, the authors calculated the traditional total genotype score and then determined the total weighting genotype score (TWGS), which accounts for the proportion of significant phenotypic variance predicted by the polymorphisms. Genomic DNA was extracted from saliva samples using a standard protocol. Genotyping was performed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The results obtained from the new genetic model (TWGS) showed that only 3 polymorphisms entered the regression equation (ACTN-3, ACE, and BDKRB2), and these polymorphisms explained 17.68-24.24% of the vertical-jump variance. With the weighting given to each polymorphism, it may be possible to identify a polygenic profile that more accurately explains, at least in part, the individual variance of athletic-performance traits. This model may be used to create individualized training programs based on a player's genetic predispositions, as well as to identify athletes who need an adapted training routine to account for individual susceptibility to injury.

Vertical Jump Performance in Italian Male and Female National Team Soccer Players

The aim of this study was to examine the validity of vertical jump (VJ) performance variables in elite-standard male and female Italian soccer players. One hundred eighteen national team soccer players (n = 56 men and n = 62 women) were tested for countermovement (CMJ) and squatting jump (SJ) heights. The stretch-shortening cycle efficiency (SSCE) was assessed as percentage of CMJ gain over SJ ([INCREMENT]CMJ-SJ), difference (CMJ-SJ), and ratio (CMJ:SJ). Results showed significant sex difference in SJ and CMJ. Differences in SSCE were mainly in the absolute variables between sexes. Cutoff values for CMJ and SJ using sex as construct were 34.4 and 32.9 cm, respectively. No competitive level differences in VJ performance were detected in the male players. Female national team players showed VJ performance higher than the under 17 counterpart. The results of this study showed that VJ performance could not discriminate between competitive levels in male national team-selected soccer players. However, the use of CMJ and SJ normative data may help strength and conditioning coaches in prescribing lower limb explosive strength training in elite soccer players. In this, variations in VJ performance in the range of approximately 1 cm may be regarded as of interest in tracking noncasual variation in elite-standard soccer players.

The Health Profile of Professional Soccer Players

Injuries are a major adverse event during a soccer player's career; they require medical and surgical treatment and rehabilitation and thus may interrupt the player's activity, often with severe physical and psychological sequel. Specialists have tried to identify the risk factors for injuries, in an attempt to discover predictors that could be prevented and or eliminated before the injury occurs, but the results are scarce. This article reviews the epidemiology of the frequency and occurrence of injuries in Italian soccer players, reports a list of preventable risk factors that are associated with injuries, and identifies preventable risk factors. We have identified personal factors (age, previous traumatic events, physical and biological characteristics of the player, life style habits such as smoking, alcohol, and diet, changes in physical-athletic aspects of the players, such as increased muscle strength, and use of medications) as possible risk factors for injuries. However, environmental factors such as changes in training techniques, field composition, and shoes structure may also have a major influence. This summary indicates that appropriate preventive measures can be undertaken to prevent injuries in professional soccer players. Professionals who are in close contacts with the players should be informed of the predictors of injuries and should be trained to intervene and plan appropriate preventive measures.

Increased levels of p70S6 phosphorylation in the G93A mouse model of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and in valine-exposed cortical neurons in culture

The higher risk factor for Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) among Italian soccer players is a question that is still debated. One of the hypotheses that have been formulated to explain a possible link between ALS and soccer players is related to the abuse of dietary supplements and drugs for enhancing sporting performance. In particular, it has been reported that branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are widely used among athletes as nutritional supplements. To observe the possible effect of BCAAs on neuronal electrical properties, we performed electrophysiological experiments on Control cultured cortical neurons and on neurons after BCAA treatment. BCAA-treated neurons showed hyperexcitability and rapamycin was able to suppress it and significantly reduce the level of mTOR, Akt and p70S6 phosphorylation. Interestingly, the hyperexcitability previously reported in cortical neurons from a genetic mouse model of ALS (G93A) was also reversed by rapamycin treatment. Moreover, both G93A and valine-treated neurons presented significantly higher levels of Pp70S6 when compared to control neurons, strongly indicating the involvement of this substrate in ALS pathology. Finally, we performed electrophysiological experiments on motor cortex slices from Control and G93A mice and those fed with a BCAA-enriched diet. We observed that neuron excitability was comparable between G93A and BCAA-enriched diet mice, but was significantly higher than in Control mice. These findings, besides strongly indicating that BCAAs specifically induce hyperexcitability, seem to suggest the involvement of p70S6 substrate in ALS pathology.

ALS in Italian professional soccer players: The risk is still present and could be soccer-specific

We previously found an increased risk for ALS in Italian professional soccer players actively engaged between 1970 and 2001 (n =7325). The present study extends previous work with a prospective follow-up of the original cohort to 2006 and investigates the risk of ALS in two other cohorts of professional athletes, basketball players (n =1973) and road cyclists (n =1701). Standardized morbidity ratios (SMRs) were calculated. Among soccer players three new cases of ALS were identified, reaching a total of eight ALS cases (mean age of onset, 41.6 years). The number of expected cases was 1.24, with an SMR of 6.45 (95% CI 2.78-12.70; p<0.00001). The risk of ALS was higher for careers lasting >5 years, for midfielders, and for players engaged after 1980. No basketball player and no cyclist developed ALS. This prospective extension of the Italian soccer players cohort survey confirms the highly significant risk of developing ALS, the young age of onset, the dose-effect risk and a predilection for midfielders. The absence of ALS cases in professional road cyclists and basketball players indicates that ALS is not related to physical activity per se.

Performance and Individual Characteristics as Predictors of Pay Levels: The Case of the Italian ‘Serie A’

Recent years have seen the development of a growing literature, and corresponding managerial practices, about compensation measurement and management. On the other hand, there has also been the emergence of unexpected salary dynamics that seem to escape from any managerial control. The debate on salary dynamics is very much to the fore when it comes to the sport industry, especially football. This paper aims to analyse some of the determinants of Italian soccer players’ salaries. In so doing, it analyzes data collected from the 2001–2002 and 2002–2003 Serie A seasons, adopting a standard multiple regression model. Our findings show how the dynamics of players’ salaries in the Serie A strongly fits with the non traditional pay plans (strongly with the pay-for-performance approach and partially with the skill-based one), while the traditional pay plan based on the job held by an individual seems not to fit.

Sports and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

We read with interest the paper by Carmel Armon published in the last issue of the Journal [1], which raises a number of substantial questions and solicits deeper insight in the association between ALS and some sports, namely soccer. Since in this context some criticism was formulated to our proportionate mortality analysis of Italian soccer players [2], we would like to provide the following additional comments.

Playing Defense Against Lou Gehrig's Disease

The official name of the illness is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), but in the U.S. it is better known as Lou Gehrig’s disease. The great New York Yankees first baseman was diagnosed with ALS in 1939 and died two years later from the progressive neuromuscular disorder, which attacks nerve cells that lead from the brain and the spinal cord to muscles throughout the body. When these motor neurons die, the brain can no longer control muscle movements; in the later stages of the disease, patients become totally paralyzed. First described in 1869 by French clinician Jean-Martin Charcot, ALS is a misunderstood illness. Doctors once thought it was rare but now consider it fairly common: about 5,000 people in the U.S. are diagnosed with ALS every year. In total there are about 30,000 ALS patients in the U.S. and approximately 5,000 in the U.K. ALS typically develops between the ages of 40 and 70, but the disease strikes younger and older patients as well. Other well-known people who suffered from ALS include British actor David Niven, Russian composer Dmitri Shostakovich and Chinese leader Mao Tse-tung. Researchers have found unusual clusters of patients with the disorder among Italian soccer players, veterans of the Persian Gulf War and residents of the island of Guam, although no one knows why.

Sports and trauma in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis revisited

An evidence-based review was undertaken of the literature published between 2002 and 2006 about sports, trauma and ALS in order to see if there were new data to modify the conclusions of a previous review (2003). The new data support the previous conclusions that physical activity and trauma are probably ("more likely than not") not risk factors for ALS (Level II conclusions). This review concludes also that the reports of an apparent excess of ALS in Italian soccer players likely reflect incorrect analysis of the data. The appearance of excess relies on accepting as valid estimation methods resulting in improbably low numbers of expected cases. A different method is proposed: it generates more plausible numbers of expected cases, compared to which there is no excess of total cases (Level C conclusion). A theoretical framework is developed to analyze the possible influence of a "healthy worker effect" on incidence of neurodegenerative diseases in cohorts of employed or formerly employed individuals. In lieu of theoretical speculations, data are needed to measure this effect, while controlling for known lifestyle factors and accounting for the effect of loss of competing causes of mortality.

Three soccer playing friends with simultaneous amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a neurodegenerative disease of largely unknown cause, predominantly affecting upper and lower motor neurons. A recent study in Italy suggested an increased incidence of ALS among professional Italian soccer players. We report a cluster of three amateur league soccer players who were friends from the same part of southern England, and developed ALS simultaneously. This might suggest that keen amateur soccer players are also at risk.

Sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis as an infectious disease: A possible role of cyanobacteria?

The available epidemiological data for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) support an infectious etiology and lead us to propose a new hypothesis. We examined older epidemiological data concerning categories of the population with increased incidence (aged people, people living in rural areas, farmers, breeders), more recent epidemiological reports regarding Italian soccer players, AIDS patients, people living in highly polluted areas, and reports of cases of conjugal and pregnancy-associated ALS. The toxic and infectious hypotheses lead us to suggest a role for cyanobacteria in the production of endogenous beta-N-methylamino-L-alanine. Infection from a cyanobacterium, or another ubiquitous bacterium having similar characteristics, may be the missing clue to the etiology of ALS. We speculate that ubiquitous bacteria secreting toxic amino acids and "colonizing" tissues and organs in the human body might be the common element linking motor neuron diseases in Guam to sporadic ALS in the rest of the world.

Proportionate mortality of Italian soccer players: Is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis an occupational disease?

The objective of the study is to investigate the mortality experience of Italian soccer players and to discuss the findings in the light of possible long term effects of doping. Standardized proportionate mortality ratio (SPMR) and standardized proportionate cancer mortality ratio (SPCMR) were computed for 350 deceased subjects deriving from a list of about 24,000 active Italian soccer players from 1960 to 1996 in the three top leagues (A, B and C). When considering SPMRs, there is a substantial adherence of observed to expected mortality, with the only exception of mortality for diseases of the nervous system (13 obs. vs. 6 exp.) mainly explained by an excess of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (8 obs. vs 0.69 exp.). As far as SPCMRs are concerned, some digestive cancers (namely: colon cancer, liver cancer and pancreas cancer) show a doubled risk. A high risk for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is observed among Italian soccer players. Epidemiological data on association between sport and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) are contrasting. On the basis of the overall available evidence we suggest a possible connection between dietary supplements or drugs used to enhance sporting performance and ALS pathogenesis. Further epidemiological studies are needed to confirm these specific mortality risks among soccer players.

On the Relationship between Scholarship and Democracy

Over the 50 years of Arctic's publication, a series of dedicated editors and countless reviewers have applied their skills in the quest for clarity of thought, expression and concept in the best interests of an interdisciplinary readership. This tradition has fostered scholarly citizenship, in line with John Ralston Saul's contemporary appeal for academics (1995) to avoid the language of corporatist elites, which is typically private, exclusionary and supportive of hierarchies of knowledge. For Saul, a philosopher whose language is unintelligible to an archaeologist is as corporatist in manner and form as the mining company president who relies on euphemism and double-speak to explain the lack of gold showings in a core sample. One must ask: Just who is served when shareholders cannot understand explanations of basic geology, or when one academic discipline cannot comprehend the research of another? Who do universities persist in encouraging departmental and faculty hierarchies that promote corporatism rather than citizenship, which contribute to obfuscation rather than clarity? ... Should we be surprised that horizontal networks of civil society enthusiasts, rather than vertical patron-client relationships of exploitation and dependence, are key to establishing peace, order, and good government? Putnam's lesson for AINA is that a community of collaborative northern scholars, organized around interdisciplinary research problems focused on a geographic area, has a lot in common with Italian soccer players, choristers, and co-op members. We are all playing the same game, singing the same song, and reinvesting the same patronage dividends in a process called democracy.