Eastern Indonesian Island Research Articles

Incidence and mutation analysis of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency in eastern indonesian populations

We conducted a field survey of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenese (G6PD) deficiency in the eastern Indonesian islands, and analyzed G6PD variants molecularly. The incidence of G6PD deficiency in 5 ethnic groups (Manggarai, Bajawa, Nage-Keo, Larantuka, and Palue) on the Flores and Palue Islands was lower than that of another native group, Sikka, or a nonnative group, Riung. Molecular analysis of G6PD variants indicated that 19 cases in Sikka had a frequency distribution of G6PD variants similar to those in our previous studies, while 8 cases in Riung had a different frequency distribution of G6PD variants. On the other hand, from field surveys in another 8 ethnic groups (Timorese, Sumbanese, Savunese, Kendari, Buton, Muna, Minahasa, and Sangirese) on the islands of West Timor, Sumba, Sulawesi, Muna and Bangka, a total of 49 deficient cases were detected. Thirty-nine of these 49 cases had G6PD Vanua Lava (383T＞C) of Melanesian origin. In our previous studies, many cases of G6PD Vanua Lava were found on other eastern Indonesian islands. Taken together, these findings may indicate that G6PD Vanua Lava is the most common variant in eastern Indonesian populations, except for Sikka.

Folk Knowledge and Distribution of the Komodo Dragon (Varanus komodoensis) on Flores Island

The world's largest lizard, the Komodo dragon, occurs not only on its namesake island but also on the far larger eastern Indonesian island of Flores. Since it first became known to western science in the early 20th century, local people have provided information on the species, its ecology, and distribution on Flores. While the lizard's occurrence in westernmost Flores has been known since its discovery by Europeans, this paper reviews recent ethnographic evidence for the continuing presence of Komodo dragons in more easterly parts of north coastal Flores where its occurrence has yet to be verified zoologically or has been documented only recently. Also discussed are the carnivorous lizard's relationship with humans and domestic animals in north central Flores, its place in local symbolism, and different names applied in various parts of the Flores region to the Komodo dragon and another, smaller and sometimes sympatric Varanid, the water monitor.

ISLAM IN THE PROTESTANT ENVIRONMENT OF THE ALOR AND PANTAR ISLANDS

On Alor and Pantar islands in eastern Indonesia, Muslims and some Christians are united by a common history going back to the time of conversion to Islam, when their ancestors agreed the rules of tradition (adat). When inland villages became Protestant Christians in the 20th century, some of them did so only with the agreement of their Muslim neighbours. The two communities intermarry and share ritual and political practices. Recent conflicts between the two religious groups in other areas of the islands appear to derive from land disputes following government-enforced resettlement on the coast, some issues over local marriage rules, and the politicisation of religious identities elsewhere in Indonesia.

The Revival Dilemma: Reflections on Human Rights, Self-Determination and Legal Pluralism in Eastern Indonesia

On the fall of Suharto, the long-surviving authoritarian president of Indonesia, in 1998, the ‘reform era’ began. Quite revolutionary laws on decentralisation sought to meet international notions of democracy and human rights, and local claims to greater self-determination. The decentralisation process in Indonesia was thus accompanied by a nationwide trend to revive local traditions, political units and institutions, and traditional leaders. This paper focuses on the Moluccan islands in Eastern Indonesia, where, in addition to a revival of adat (tradition and customary law), there was a strategic move by local people to foster reconciliation after conflicts in the early post-Suharto period, mainly between Christians and Muslims.At the international level Indonesia took account of the recently developed notions of collective human rights, including indigenous peoples’ right to self-determination and autonomy, and their rights to preserve and practice their own culture. This entailed the revival and re-recognition of traditional villages (negeri) and the reinstallation of traditional village heads (raja). New decentralisation laws enabled village people as cultural collectivities to return to their village adat, but tended towards the exclusion, or non-equal treatment, of cultural outsiders.At the national level decentralisation provisions, constitutional amendments, and a Human Rights Law were enacted. These were to be implemented at the local level. However, progress was impeded by the outbreak of bloody and lengthy Christian-Muslim conflict. After a peace meeting in 2002 put an official end to the conflict, local actors hoped to build sustainable peace through the revival or strengthening of traditions, traditional leaders, structures and customary law. The raja as traditional leaders and potential mediators, but also part of the national government system, were to play a central role. The new national autonomy law gave such local tendencies legal support, and stated that diversity was to be acknowledged. The laws raised many issues. There were various difficulties in determining who should be raja in many districts, and in settling their powers. There were further questions as to whether the observance of cultural rights could be premised on fixed and static notions of culture, as to which persons should make the decisive choices, and whether adat could be reduced to writing without losing its necessary flexibility. The paper uses a study of the Honitetu district to explore these issues.It is suggested in conclusion that an unconditional revival of adat would be counterproductive. It is argued that it is crucial to preserve the flexibility of adat in order to adapt it to changing political, social and economic circumstances and to accommodate all people living in the territories, both cultural insiders and outsiders.

Dragon's paradise lost: palaeobiogeography, evolution and extinction of the largest-ever terrestrial lizards (Varanidae).

BackgroundThe largest living lizard species, Varanus komodoensis Ouwens 1912, is vulnerable to extinction, being restricted to a few isolated islands in eastern Indonesia, between Java and Australia, where it is the dominant terrestrial carnivore. Understanding how large-bodied varanids responded to past environmental change underpins long-term management of V. komodoensis populations.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe reconstruct the palaeobiogeography of Neogene giant varanids and identify a new (unnamed) species from the island of Timor. Our data reject the long-held perception that V. komodoensis became a giant because of insular evolution or as a specialist hunter of pygmy Stegodon. Phyletic giantism, coupled with a westward dispersal from mainland Australia, provides the most parsimonious explanation for the palaeodistribution of V. komodoensis and the newly identified species of giant varanid from Timor. Pliocene giant varanid fossils from Australia are morphologically referable to V. komodoensis suggesting an ultimate origin for V. komodoensis on mainland Australia (>3.8 million years ago). Varanus komodoensis body size has remained stable over the last 900,000 years (ka) on Flores, a time marked by major faunal turnovers, extinction of the island's megafauna, the arrival of early hominids by 880 ka, co-existence with Homo floresiensis, and the arrival of modern humans by 10 ka. Within the last 2000 years their populations have contracted severely.Conclusions/SignificanceGiant varanids were once a ubiquitous part of Subcontinental Eurasian and Australasian faunas during the Neogene. Extinction played a pivotal role in the reduction of their ranges and diversity throughout the late Quaternary, leaving only V. komodoensis as an isolated long-term survivor. The events over the last two millennia now threaten its future survival.

Genetic Admixture History of Eastern Indonesia as Revealed by Y-Chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Analysis

Eastern Indonesia possesses more linguistic diversity than any other region in Southeast Asia, with both Austronesian (AN) languages that are of East Asian origin, as well as non-Austronesian (NAN) languages of likely Melanesian origin. Here, we investigated the genetic history of human populations from seven eastern Indonesian islands, including AN and NAN speakers, as well as the relationship between languages and genes, by means of nonrecombining Y-chromosomal (NRY) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis. We found that the eastern Indonesian gene pool consists of East Asian as well as Melanesian components, as might be expected based on linguistic evidence, but also harbors putative indigenous eastern Indonesian signatures that perhaps reflect the initial occupation of the Wallacea by aboriginal hunter-gatherers already in Palaeolithic times. Furthermore, both NRY and mtDNA data showed a complete lack of correlation between linguistic and genetic relationships, most likely reflecting genetic admixture and/or language shift. In addition, we noted a small fraction of the NRY and mtDNA data shared between eastern Indonesians and Australian Aborigines likely reflecting an ancient link between Asia and Australia. Our data thus provide insights into the complex genetic ancestry history of eastern Indonesian islanders characterized by several admixture episodes and demonstrate a clear example of the lack of the often-assumed correlation between the genes and languages of human populations.

Red cocks and black hens : Gendered symbolism, kinship and social practice in the Ngada highlands

Ngada is not only the name of a regency (kabupaten) in Central Flores, one of the Lesser Sunda Islands in eastern Indonesia (Nusa Tenggara Timur), but also refers to a people numbering about 60,000 who live in the southern and central part of the regency, extending from a small coastal section along the Savu Sea up to a highland plateau more than 1,000 metres in altitude. With the exception of the plateau, the region is extremely rugged, cross-cut by rough gorges. Many villages are still isolated and can only be reached by footpaths. Other villages are now connected by unpaved roads and a few even by paved ones.

Lutes, Gongs, Women and Men: (En)Gendering Instrumental Music in the Philippines

Gender relations in island Southeast Asia are largely based on studies of Bali, Java and the eastern Indonesian islands and are often characterised in terms of binary opposites or complementarities. However, the issue of gender is multifaceted and goes beyond a two column representation of gender, one defined by and limited to biological divisions. Among the T'boli of the southern Philippines, complex dynamics interpenetrate masculine and feminine principles across almost all areas of cognitive, social, cultural and aesthetic domains, including music. However, gender complementarity and difference between women and men carry a degree of ambiguity and mutual inclusiveness as illustrated in the constitution and performance of the two genres associated with courting and marriage, the seguyun and the sebelang.

Ethnomycology Among the Nuaulu of the Moluccas: Putting Berlin’s “General Principles” of Ethnobiological Classification to the Test

Ethnomycology among the Nuaulu of the Moluccas: Putting Berlin’s “General Principles” of Ethnobiological Classification to the Test. Berlin's (Ethnobiological Classification: Principles of Categorization of Plants and Animals in Traditional Societies. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1992) universal theories of ethnobiological classification have provided an indispensable common rubric to compare data from diverse sources. This paper examines these principles with respect to the naming of mushrooms by the Nuaulu on the eastern Indonesian island of Seram, a people for whom mushrooms have only marginal significance. Concordance to Berlin’s principles is noted in some respects, but the small proportion of overall mycological diversity that is treated, the lack of consistently labeled intermediate rankings, the conflation between specific and generic levels, and the importance of utilitarian considerations challenge Berlin's hierarchically ranked “general purpose” (i.e., natural) model of folk biological taxonomy. A comparative review of the literature on other, mostly tropical ethnomycological classifications, is also included.

A New Genus of Ptilomerine Gerridae (Hemiptera: Heteroptera) from Flores, Lesser Sunda Islands

A new genus of Gerridae, Floresiobates, is described from the island of Flores in the Lesser Sunda Islands of eastern Indonesia, with F. lattini n. sp. as the type species. Floresiobates is compared with Rheumatogonus Kirkaldy and Jucundus Distant, and these three genera are considered on the basis of various shared character states to be closely related. Illustrations of key characters and a distribution map are provided, accompanied by a discussion of the ecological setting in which the type series was collected, and a consideration of the biogeographic implications of this discovery.

Genetic study of hepatitis B virus in Indonesia reveals a new subgenotype of genotype B in east Nusa Tenggara

The hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotype is associated with viral anthropological history, clinical outcome of disease and response to treatment. This study examines the HBV genotypes in Indonesia. HBV genotypes were determined by whole-genome sequencing and from the sequence of the Pre-S2 and S regions in a larger series. Two HBV genotypes, B (HBV/B) and C (HBV/C), were predominant. Three previously reported HBV/B subgenotypes were identified, with certain population association: HBV/B2 (HBV/Ba) was found mostly in Indonesians of Chinese ethnic origin, HBV/B3 was dominant among the Javanese, and HBV/B5, reported earlier from the Philippines, was also discovered, albeit at low frequency. Two other subgenotypes, HBV/B4 from Vietnam and HBV/B6, recently reported from the Arctic region, were not found. A novel subgenotype, HBV/B7, was recognized, associated with populations of the Nusa Tenggara islands in eastern Indonesia. Characteristic differences in HBsAg serotype and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the Pre-S2 region distinguish HBV/B7 from other HBV/B subgenotypes and further establish the new HBV subgenotype.

Microsatellite diversity and genetic structure of the commercially important tropical tree species Eucalyptus urophylla, endemic to seven islands in eastern Indonesia

Eucalyptus urophylla (Timor mountain gum) is an economically important plantation species that occurs naturally in a series of disjunct populations on the volcanic slopes of seven islands in eastern Indonesia. Twelve microsatellite markers were used to investigate the distribution of nuclear genetic diversity among 19 geographically defined E. urophylla populations. High levels of gene diversity were observed throughout the geographic range (H E = 0.703 to 0.776). The level of genetic differentiation among populations was low (F ST = 0.031), but the amount of differentiation increased with geographic distance. A phenogram produced by a neighbor-joining analysis illustrated that populations clustered according to islands. However, a Bayesian clustering approach revealed a more cryptic population structure comprising two genetically homogeneous groups. Gene flow among the populations is likely responsible for the apparent weak influence of geographic insularity on the genetic diversity and structure of the island species. These findings provide direction for conservation and breeding strategies in E. urophylla.

Flores after floresiensis: Implications of local reaction to recent palaeoanthropological discoveries on an eastern Indonesian island

In a recent article (Forth 2005) I discussed possible implications for several sorts of anthropology of the discovery, on the eastern Indonesian island of Flores, of skeletal remains interpreted as a new species of Homo – Homo floresiensis. The discovery was, and remains, controversial, not least because the creature so classified, interpreted by the discovery team as an endemic dwarf descendant of Homo erectus, stood just over a metre tall and had a cranial capacity of just 380 cc, thus a brain about the size of a chimpanzee’s. It had also survived until at least 12,000 BP , well within the period modern humans (Homo sapiens) were present in this part of Indonesia (Brown et al. 2004; Morwood et al. 2004).

Women's Mobility, Changing Gender Relations and Development in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia

This paper investigates the relationships between mobility and the constitution of gender relations and subjectivities of rural-urban female migrants in Indonesia. Employing an ethnographic approach, my research explores meanings of space and changing relationships for migrant subjects. A specific group of migrants — teachers and nurses from the outer islands of Eastern Indonesia — working in urban centers elaborate on their stories of migration. The reasons and consequences of their migration reflect intricate and shifting gender relations, as boundaries of propriety are redefined through spatial movement. This kind of mobility suggests that women migrate for multiple reasons requiring various scales of analysis. Migrants reveal shifting subjectivity and changing relations with family and local communities whilst participating in political and economic spaces.

Coevolution of languages and genes on the island of Sumba, eastern Indonesia

Numerous studies indicate strong associations between languages and genes among human populations at the global scale, but all broader scale genetic and linguistic patterns must arise from processes originating at the community level. We examine linguistic and genetic variation in a contact zone on the eastern Indonesian island of Sumba, where Neolithic Austronesian farming communities settled and began interacting with aboriginal foraging societies approximately 3,500 years ago. Phylogenetic reconstruction based on a 200-word Swadesh list sampled from 29 localities supports the hypothesis that Sumbanese languages derive from a single ancestral Austronesian language. However, the proportion of cognates (words with a common origin) traceable to Proto-Austronesian (PAn) varies among language subgroups distributed across the island. Interestingly, a positive correlation was found between the percentage of Y chromosome lineages that derive from Austronesian (as opposed to aboriginal) ancestors and the retention of PAn cognates. We also find a striking correlation between the percentage of PAn cognates and geographic distance from the site where many Sumbanese believe their ancestors arrived on the island. These language-gene-geography correlations, unprecedented at such a fine scale, imply that historical patterns of social interaction between expanding farmers and resident hunter-gatherers largely explain community-level language evolution on Sumba. We propose a model to explain linguistic and demographic coevolution at fine spatial and temporal scales.

Chloroplast DNA phylogeography reveals the island colonisation route of Eucalyptus urophylla (Myrtaceae)

We present a study of the colonisation patterns of a tropical tree species among an island archipelago. Eucalyptus urophylla (S.T.Blake) is an economically important plantation species endemic to the volcanic slopes of seven islands in eastern Indonesia. In the present study, we investigated the geographical distribution of chloroplast DNA sequence variation in E. urophylla to gain insight into its historical seed-migration routes. DNA sequence data were obtained from 198 plants from which 20 haplotypes were identified. A moderate to high level of chloroplast genetic differentiation (GST = 0.581, NST = 0.724) and significant phylogeographic structure (NST > GST; P < 0.01) were observed, suggesting low levels of recurrent seed-mediated gene flow among the islands. The highest levels of haplotype diversity were observed on the eastern islands of Wetar and Timor. The two most westerly islands, Flores and Lomblen, were fixed for what appeared to be the ancestral haplotype. Chloroplast haplotype diversity therefore exhibited a decreasing trend from east to west in the species’ range, consistent with an east-to-west colonisation route across the seven islands. Environmental factors that may have contributed to the contemporary spatial distribution of chloroplast DNA haplotypes include island paleogeology, ocean currents, fluctuations in sea levels and possible hybridisation events.

Livelihoods, fire and policy in eastern Indonesia

Indonesian legislation calls for a zero‐burning policy. This approach to fire management is largely in response to significant negative impacts on the economy and the environment, not only in Indonesia but also the neighbouring region, that result annually from peat fires in Kalimantan and Sumatra. In this context, the present paper investigates the local use and management of fire in Flores and Sumba islands in eastern Indonesia. Our appraisals show that people's livelihoods depend on fire to maintain grasslands and, therefore, that the national policy and legislation for zero‐burning is inappropriate and needs to be revised. This follows from the fact that not all fires cause damage and are unwanted. Through a series of rapid rural appraisal interviews, we found that the fires in grasslands are often lit intentionally to maintain the grasslands that local people use to sustain a variety of livelihood activities such as cattle rearing, hunting and farming. Although fires can damage or destroy remnant dry forests in eastern Indonesia, in order to be effective, future policy formulations need to account for this human livelihood dimension and the geographic variation in fuels, climate and land use.

Haumeni, Not Many: Renewed Plunder and Mismanagement in the Timorese Sandalwood Industry

There have been numerous occasions throughout history where the exploitation of a single commodity has transformed the fortunes of institutions, communities and even nations that have sought to benefit from its control. Middle Eastern oil, rubber from the former Belgian Congo or gold in South America provide a few striking case studies. For the eastern Indonesian island of Timor, the long-term struggle for the control and trade of high quality white sandalwood (Santalum album L) holds this pre-eminent position. The history of Timor, for perhaps the last millennium, has been intimately linked to the shifting fortunes of sandalwood production and trade. Over the centuries, the attraction of sandalwood and the fine scented oil produced from its heartwood, has encouraged an extraordinary array of diverse trading interests that jostled and warred for influence and a share of the lucrative profits from its exploitation and sale across Asia. For indigenous Timorese too, participation in sandalwood politics frequently lay at the heart of endemic struggles for power and wealth. The capacity to exert control over sandalwood production and trade from the interior of the island was a direct measure of political authority and standing among rival Timorese indigenous domains. To control the production and trade in sandalwood was to control the polity, at least to the extent that the situation remained uncontested. The converse also held true; namely that the holders of effective political power within Timorese domains were well placed to monopolise available sandalwood stocks. Thus to a significant degree the fortunes of Timorese society are mirrored in the history of sandalwood politics.

The genesis of touristic imagery

Although the construction and amplification of touristically celebrated peoples’ Otherness on global mediascapes has been well documented, the genesis of touristic imagery in out of the way locales, where tourism is embryonic at best, has yet to be examined. This article explores the emergent construction of touristic imagery on the small, sporadically visited Eastern Indonesian island of Alor during the 1990s. In examining the ways in which competing images of Alorese people are sculpted by both insiders and outsiders, this article illustrates the politics and power dynamics embedded in the genesis of touristic imagery. Ultimately, I argue that even in remote locales where tourism is barely incipient, ideas and fantasies about tourism can color local politics, flavor discussions of identity and channel local actions.

Lymphatic filariasis and Brugia timori: prospects for elimination.

Brugia timori is a pathogenic filarial nematode of humans, replacing the closely related species Brugia malayi on some islands in eastern Indonesia. Recent studies on Alor island show that, locally, B. timori is still of great public health importance, causing mainly acute filarial fever and chronic lymphedema. PCR-based assays to detect parasite DNA, in addition to assays for detecting specific antibodies that have been originally developed for B. malayi, can be used efficiently as diagnostic tools for B. timori. In the framework of the Global Program to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis, a single annual dose of diethylcarbamazine, in combination with albendazole, was found to reduce the prevalence and density of microfilaraemia persistently. Therefore, elimination of B. timori appears to be achievable.