Island-wide Survey Research Articles

A national survey on registered products, availability, prices, and affordability of 100 essential medicines in community pharmacies across Sri Lanka

IntroductionAvailability of essential medicines that meet the expected quality standards, in appropriate dosage forms at affordable prices is a fundamental prerequisite to fulfill healthcare needs of given a population. This study assessed available products, prices and affordability of essential medicines (EM) in community pharmacies in Sri Lanka with comparison of registration status from the National Medicines Regulatory Authority(NMRA).MethodsA cross-sectional island-wide survey of 80 pharmacies was conducted according to World Health Organization and Health Action International Manual (WHO/HAI). Hundred medicines were selected from the global core list(n = 14), regional core list(n = 16) and the Sri Lanka Essential Medicine List (SL-EML) (n = 70) based on healthcare needs. Number of registered products in 2015 and 2021 were compared.FindingsAverage availability was 85.4%(± 12.31) and availability was lowest in the Northern province (69.38 ± 21.18%)(p = 0.008). Availability between the state owned, franchise and privately owned pharmacies was not significantly different (p > 0.05). 89.4% medicines were affordable except for amiodarone, hydroxychloroquine, sitagliptin, soluble insulin, isophane insulin, losartan, levodopa carbidopa combination, clonazepam and ceftriaxone. The median price ratio (MPR) of 33.7% of medicines was less than 1 and MPR of 37.1% originator brands (OB) was over 3. Median number of generic brands in the market was 8(range 2–44), 9% of medicines had 20 or more products in the market and 72.7% medicines had more products available than the number registered in 2015. The average number of registered products were similar in 2015 (8.27) and 2021(7.59) (p = 0.15).ConclusionThe overall availability of EMs in Sri Lanka was high in all categories of community pharmacies. Medicines were largely affordable and reasonably priced in 2015, although OBs were generally more expensive. Majority of medicines had more products in the market than the number of registered products.

Update on the Geographic Distribution of the Intermediate Host Snails of Schistosoma mansoni on St. Lucia: A Step Toward Confirming the Interruption of Transmission of Human Schistosomiasis.

To provide information to guide considerations of declaring interruption of transmission of human schistosomiasis due to Schistosoma mansoni on St. Lucia, we undertook an island-wide survey in June-July 2022 to determine the presence of Biomphalaria snails, the intermediate hosts of S. mansoni, and their infection status. Snail surveys were carried out at 58 habitats to determine presence of Biomphalaria snails followed by examination of the collected snails for evidence of infection with S. mansoni. Furthermore, water samples were collected at the snail habitats and screened for presence of S. mansoni DNA using an eDNA approach. We found B. glabrata present in one habitat (Cul de Sac) where it was abundant. Specimens provisionally identified as Biomphalaria kuhniana were recovered from 10 habitats. None of the Biomphalaria specimens recovered were positive for S. mansoni. None of the eDNA water samples screened were positive for S. mansoni. Experimental exposures of both field-derived and laboratory-reared St. Lucian B. glabrata and B. kuhniana to Puerto Rican and Kenyan-derived S. mansoni strains revealed B. glabrata to be susceptible to both and B. kuhniana proved refractory from histological and snail shedding results. We conclude, given the current rarity of B. glabrata on the island and lack of evidence for the presence of S. mansoni, that transmission is unlikely to be ongoing. Coupled with negative results from recent human serological surveys, and implementation of improved sanitation and provision of safe water supplies, St. Lucia should be considered a candidate for declaration of interruption of human schistosomiasis transmission.

Mangrove management in Sri Lanka and stakeholder collaboration: A social network perspective

Understanding the extent of collaboration among stakeholders is key to supporting mangrove management. Despite the existence of robust policies, collaboration among stakeholders of mangrove co-management remains largely unexplored in Sri Lanka. This was partly due to the civil war, natural disasters, and other socio-economic changes over the past 30 years. Our study aimed to identify the collaboration between stakeholders of mangrove management and their perceptions regarding mangrove co-management in Sri Lanka using social network analysis and content analysis. Surveys were conducted in all five coastal provinces of Sri Lanka. Stakeholders included in the study were from government departments, non-governmental organizations, and private institutes. Our results showed that there were differences between coastal provinces in the mangrove management networks, specifically in the number of stakeholders involved and their degree of collaboration. Some important stakeholders (for example the Land Use and Policy Planning Department) were excluded from the social networks in certain provinces (Eastern and Western provinces). There were various issues hampering effective mangrove management such as inefficient communication, inconsistencies between policies, and insufficient financial capacity of government stakeholders responsible for policy implementation. According to the stakeholders in our study, providing mangrove management initiatives with long-term collaboration, post-care, continuous monitoring, and funding may help to overcome these challenges. Additionally, we suggest the establishment of a common platform to coordinate stakeholders. We further encourage increasing the participation of academics, researchers, and students from national universities in the mangrove co-management of Sri Lanka. Insights from this island-wide survey can be adapted to mangrove and other natural resource management trajectories in other countries as well.

Assessment of knowledge and perceptions on leishmaniasis: An island-wide study in Sri Lanka.

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a notifiable disease in Sri Lanka with increasing case numbers reported from every part of the country. In addition to disease treatment and vector control measures, knowledge and perceptions in a community are key contributors to a successful intervention program. An island-wide survey was carried out to assess the knowledge and perceptions regarding CL across the island, with 252 confirmed CL cases and 2,608 controls. Data was collected by trained personnel, using a pre-tested Case Reporting Form (CRF). Although the percentage who referred to CL by its correct name was low (1.4%), majority stated that it is a fly induced skin disease (79.1%). Knowledge on the symptoms, curability and the name of the vector was high in these communities, but specific knowledge on vector breeding places, biting times and preventive methods were poor. The patients were more knowledgeable when compared to the controls. Differences in the level of knowledge could be identified according to the level of education of the participants as well as across the different areas of the country. The main source of information was through the healthcare system, but the involvement of media in educating the communities on the disease was minimal. While this study population was unaccustomed to the use of repellants or sprays, the use of bed nets was high (77.7% of the participants) in this study population. Although misconceptions and incorrect practices are rare in Sri Lankan communities, promoting health education programs which may improve disease awareness and knowledge on vector and its control will further strengthen the control and prevention strategies.

Delimitation of Sri Lankan cycad species inferred from combined morphological and molecular analyses

Delimitations of Sri Lankan Cycas species have not been fully resolved, and hence propelled a comprehensive scientific investigation. By conducting an intense island-wide survey, we examined different cycad morphospecies in Sri Lanka, studied their vegetative and female reproductive morphological features, and analyzed genetic variation using two plastid markers (trnH-psbA and trnSGUC-trnGUCC) and one nuclear marker (ITS), together with cycad DNA sequence data already available in GenBank®, in order to delimit Sri Lankan Cycas taxa and to reveal their evolutionary relationships. Combined analysis of both morphological and DNA sequence data resolved Sri Lankan cycads into three species as C. circinalis and C. nathorstii (subsection Cycas), and C. zeylanica (subsection Rumphiae). The results revealed the presence of C. circinalis in Sri Lanka for the first time, which was previously reported as endemic to India. Differentiating C. circinalis from C. nathorstii is rather difficult if only morphological or genetic variation is considered, and this could be due to strong phylogenetic affinities that exist between these two species. Further, the combined analysis clearly identified enigmatic intermediate individuals in the population which possessed mixed morphological and genetic features of the two species of the subsection Cycas. We propose to implement combined analysis of both morphological and DNA sequence (both plastid and nuclear) data as a better approach in discriminating closely related cycad taxa, and in identifying enigmatic intermediate individuals in the population, compared to analysis of each data type separately.

First report of banana freckle disease caused by Phyllosticta cavendishii in Mauritius

Banana (Musa sp.) is among the most important fruit crops grown in Mauritius with significant socioeconomic and cultural considerations. The annual production of banana approximates to around 8000 tonnes (Statistics Mauritius, 2018). Dwarf Cavendish is the main variety grown commercially in Mauritius. During the hot and humid month of February 2014, symptoms consisting of dark black spots were observed on unripe banana of Dwarf Cavendish from the region of Nouvelle Découverte (super humid zone). A disease incidence of more than 50% with a moderate to severe level of severity across the field was reported by the extension services of the Food and Agricultural Research and Extension Institute. On the fruits, the initial symptom was tiny reddish-brown spots, bordered by dark green water-soaked margins (Figure 1). As the spots enlarged and coalesced, the surface became rough and turned black. These spots had a rough texture like sand-paper, similar to the description described by Wong et al. (2012). Comparable symptoms were observed on the leaves (Figure 2). Results from a rapid island-wide survey showed that only the Cavendish-type banana varieties displayed symptoms of infection. Out of 98 banana fields surveyed (50.9 ha), 65% were affected. Morphological identification of the suspected fungal pathogen was done using a compound light microscope. A sterile needle was used to tease pycnidia on leaves in a drop of sterile water to release conidia, before being mounted in clear lactic acid for microscopic examination. Conidia (Figure 3) formed singly at the apex of the conidiogenous cell were hyaline, aseptate, oblong to ellipsoidal, coarsely guttulate and measured 7.1-15.6 × 4.4-8.3 μm. The apical mucilaginous appendage arising from the conidium was straight to curved and was 5.1-12.9 μm long. Spermagonia were 70–125 μm in diameter and 50–85 μm high. Dumbbell-shaped spermatia (Figure 4) were hyaline, aseptate, biguttulate and measured 7.5-9.5 × 1.3-1.8 μm. These morphological characters are consistent with the species description of Phyllosticta cavendishii (Wong et al., 2012). Lesions from 11 samples of leaf and fruit with fruiting bodies were ground in liquid nitrogen followed by genomic DNA extraction. Extraction of DNA was done on c. 50 mg fresh plant tissue using the Biosprint 15 DNA Plant Kit (Qiagen, Germany). Tissues were first homogenized using a Tissuelyser (Qiagen, Germany) in a 2 ml microcentrifuge tube containing a 3 mm metal bead for two 30 second bursts at 30Hz. Two microliters of the eluted DNA was used as template in an ITS PCR amplification using AmpliTaq Gold 360 Mastermix (Applied Biosystems, USA) and 0.5 μM each of primers GMF1 and GMR2 (Wong et al., 2012). Thermal cycling conditions were 95°C for 10 min followed by 40 cycles of 95°C for 30 sec, 55°C for 30 sec and 72°C for 1 min. Final extension of PCR products was done at 72°C for 10 min. Amplicons (550bp) were directly sequenced using the same primer pair. Resulting sequences were analysed using BlastN as well as by manual comparison to known sequences of Phyllosticta isolates which cause freckle disease of banana. The causal agent from all 11 samples tested was found to be Phyllosticta cavendishii. The ITS sequences were deposited in GenBank (Accession Nos. MW520341-MW520351) and at the Queensland Plant Pathology Herbarium (BRIP 72048 to 72058). Pathogenicity was tested using twenty mature green healthy fruits of banana variety Dwarf Cavendish. Fruits were surface sterilised using 0.2% sodium hypochlorite for 2 mins, rinsed with sterilised distilled water and allowed to dry before inoculation. Ten fruits were artificially inoculated on the outer surface, clearly marked, with a conidial suspension of 106 conidia/ml, prepared from pycnidia extracted from field infected tissue. Control fruits were treated with sterile distilled water. All the fruits were covered with plastic bags for 48 hours and incubated at room temperature, 80% relative humidity and with a 12-hour photoperiod. After 7 days, typical minute black spots identical to those observed in the field, appeared on inoculated fruits, whereas controls remained healthy. The morphological characteristics of the fungus were consistent with those previously observed, hence fulfilling Koch's postulates. To our knowledge, this is the first report of Phyllosticta cavendishii causing banana freckle disease in Mauritius. The authors acknowledge the Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation for the molecular identification of Phyllosticta cavendishii and also Dr Yu Pei Tan from the Brisbane Plant Pathology Herbarium for accessioning isolates and submission into GenBank.

Prevalence and molecular identification of <em>Hepatozoon</em> infection inworking dogs of the Sri Lanka Air Force, free-roaming, and privately-owned dogs: an island-wide survey

The Sri Lankan Journal of Infectious Diseases (SLJID) is an open access, peer-reviewed, biannual journal published by the Sri Lankan Society for Microbiology (SSM). The Journal considers articles from all professional disciplines involved in the field of infectious diseases. The Journal has been in publication since 2011, is included in the DOAJ since 2018 and is a member of COPE since 2021. The SLJID practices a double-blind peer review policy. From 2022, the SLJID publishes accepted manuscripts online immediately after copy-editing, enabling rapid dissemination of scientific knowledge. The published articles are subsequently compiled into two issues in April and October. The SLJID does not charge any article processing or publication fee.

Distribution, Habitat Associations and Conservation Status of the Sri Lanka Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger

Ecological responses of nocturnal predatory birds to forest cover and other geospatial predictors vary both geographically and taxonomically. Considerable knowledge gaps exist regarding the habitat associations of the Sri Lanka Frogmouth, a nocturnal bird restricted to Sri Lanka and the Indian Western Ghats. Via a 20-year island-wide survey, we searched for frogmouths in Sri Lanka to determine their habitat associations at both local and landscape scales and developed a habitat suitability model (HSM) to predict both current and future distribution. We confirmed frogmouth presence in 18% of the surveyed sites across all major bioclimatic zones (wet, intermediate, dry, and arid) from lower elevations (11-767m), comprising a broad geographic range. Frogmouth presence was mostly limited to forests (90%) with a few sites in agricultural mosaics. Land protection, altitude and both local and landscape-scale forest cover, as well as forest-cover loss at both spatial scales, were strong predictors of frogmouth presence. According to our HSM, the southwestern lowlands and parts of the intermediate zone contained the most suitable areas for frogmouths despite their smaller extent. Although the dry and intermediate zones contained extensive habitats for frogmouth, these regions were relatively less suitable. The habitat associations and geographic range of this species in Sri Lanka differ from that seen in India through negative associations with altitude and absence from montane zones, absence from degraded or severely disturbed habitats and independence from proximity to waterways. The Sri Lanka Frogmouth is sensitive to anthropogenic disturbances, including historical forest losses. We recommend landscape-scale conservation planning that incorporates both primary and mature persistent secondary forests to ensure the protection of this unique iconic species.—Karunarathna, S., Dayananda, S.K., Gabadage, D., Botejue, M., Madawala, M., Peabotuwage, I., Madurapperuma, B.D., Ranagalage, M., Udayakumara, A. & Surasinghe, T.D. (2022). Distribution, habitat associations and conservation status of the Sri Lanka Frogmouth Batrachostomus moniliger. Ardeola, 69: 75-95.

Addressing post-consumer textile waste in developing economies

Consumer attitudes and disposal behaviour of textiles in developing economies are under researched, constraining capacity to address dual environmental challenges of increasingly disposable fashion and inefficient waste collection programs. We present the results of a systematic case study about post-consumer textiles waste in Colombo, Sri Lanka. Taking post-consumer textile waste as our unit of analysis, we conducted in-depth and semi-structured interviews with the local industry stakeholders, the waste management infrastructure and an island-wide survey of consumer attitudes and disposal behaviour towards post-consumer textile waste. The results indicate: (a) considerably more post-consumer textile waste than recorded at landfills; (b) consumption and disposal behaviour comparable with developed economies, significant in contexts of no formal mechanisms to address end of life post-consumer textile waste and (c) age, employment category, income level and geographical location, are statistically significant in understanding public textile waste disposal behaviour, indicating importance of appropriate policy and infrastructure issues.

Online Opportunities in Secularizing Societies? Clergy and the COVID-19 Pandemic in Ireland

This article explores how Christian clergy in Ireland have framed their adoption of online ministries during the COVID-19 pandemic as opportunities for the churches to retain some significance, even in secularizing societies. It is based on an island-wide survey of 439 faith leaders and 32 in-depth, follow-up interviews. The results of this study are analysed in light of scholarship in three areas: (1) secularization in Ireland, informed by Norris and Inglehart’s evolutionary modernization theory; (2) cross-national research that has found increasing interest in spirituality or religion during the pandemic (with the UK as the main point of comparison); and (3) wider pre-pandemic scholarship on digital religion. The article concludes by arguing that the clergy’s framing of online ministries as opportunities is important: if they regard online ministries as potential sites of religious revitalization, they are more likely to invest in them. There is some evidence that they may be assisted in this by lay volunteers. However, given the secularization already underway, it remains to be seen whether an embrace of blended online and in-person religion will have far-reaching impacts on Ireland’s religious landscape.

Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) on the islands of Puerto Rico and Vieques, U.S.A.

We conducted an island-wide survey of the Caribbean islands Puerto Rico and Vieques, U.S.A. during late 2018 and early 2019 to document the current richness of mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). We used a combination of larval surveys and adult trapping using baited CDC light traps and BG-Sentinel traps across 41 of the 78 municipalities. We collected 9 genera, 12 subgenera, and 31 species, which when combined with past studies yields 44 species on the islands. We also note species occurrences across habitat types and elevations from around the islands. One new record, Aedes (Ochlerotatus) obturbator Dyar and Knab, is noted. However we found no evidence of the presence of Aedes albopictus (Skuse), an invasive found throughout the Caribbean, or Aedes (Fredwardsius) vittatus (Bigot), an exotic species recently reported in the Dominican Republic and Cuba. Habitat associations and information regarding the medical importance of species are also included. Given that the islands often experience outbreaks of several arboviruses, obtaining a complete picture of the species present is of high importance.

<p class="Body"><strong>Teratological anomalies of an adult Asiatic blue tick, <em>Rhipicephalus microplus</em> (Acari: Ixodidae)</strong></p>

While identifying 2, 628 ticks collected from a cross sectional, island-wide survey of ticks infesting goats in Sri Lanka, one Rhipicephalus microplus specimen was found with external teratological anomalies. The observed anomaly was complete absence of right leg IV (ectromély). This is the first known case of teratological changes observed for ticks in Sri Lanka however, such anomaliies have previously been reported for R. microplus.

Women’s Autonomy in Household Purchasing Decision Making in Sri Lanka: An Application of Multivariate Baseline-Category Logit Model

As many researches on gender and household purchasing decision making are sociological as well as descriptive, this attempt tries to fill the gap with applying of statistical model in to the same context. This is basically an inductive approach that generates data, applies joint modeling and moves forward in sociological interpretation. The data has been generated in an Island-wide survey consisting 28,800 household units in Sri Lanka in 2016. Generalized linear mixed approach was applied to baseline-category logit models to identify the factors associated with women’s autonomy in decision making on daily household purchases and major household purchases. This research comes up to the conclusions that women’s age, education status of the women and spouses, number of children, residence area and economic status in the family emerged as important factors associated with women’s autonomy in decision making. Increased age, well paid employment and having many living children are all positively associated with women’s autonomy in decision making in both daily household purchases and major household purchases. Women from rural and estate areas are less likely be autonomous in decision making than the women from urban areas. Highly educated women are more likely to make decisions jointly while the women who less attended formal education are further likely to make decisions unaccompanied.

Apparent Collapse of the Peary Caribou (<i>Rangifer tarandus pearyi</i>) Population on Axel Heiberg Island, Nunavut, Canada


 In spring 2019, we conducted a comprehensive abundance and distribution survey for Peary caribou (Rangifer tarandus pearyi) and muskox (Ovibos moschatus) on Axel Heiberg Island, Nunavut, Canada. Although much of Axel Heiberg Island is rugged and extensively glaciated, areas east of the Princess Margaret mountain range have high productivity given the latitude and have supported relatively large numbers of Peary caribou and muskoxen. This region of the island has been previously identified as a potential High Arctic refugium. The last island-wide survey, in 2007, estimated 4237 muskoxen (95% confidence interval [CI] [3371:5325]) and 2291 Peary caribou (95% CI [1636:3208]); based on our 2019 results, it appears that muskox numbers have been stable on Axel Heiberg Island since then. Using distance sampling and density surface models, we estimated 3772 muskoxen (95% CI [3001:4742]) on Axel Heiberg Island during our 2019 survey. In contrast, Peary caribou, which is listed as an endangered species under the Canadian Species at Risk Act, appear to have declined dramatically from the 2007 estimate. During the 2019 survey, we observed only six Peary caribou and could not generate an island-wide estimate. Abrupt declines in numbers are characteristic of the species and are usually related to poor winter conditions such as dense snowpack or extreme weather events that result in widespread ground-fast icing. However, the limited monitoring information available at the northern extent of Peary caribou range presents major challenges to our understanding of the mechanisms leading to this near total absence of approximately 20% of range-wide Peary caribou numbers.

Presence of Sugarcane Orange Rust in Mauritius

Orange rust caused by Puccinia kuehnii was observed in Mauritius in March 2018 on cultivar M 2705/06, under selection. Typical symptoms of cinnamon to yellowish brown lesions, with pustules protruding on the underside of leaves and occurring at times in patches were observed on the cultivar. The causal agent of orange rust was confirmed by light microscopy, PCR using Puccinia kuehnii specific primers and sequencing of PCR fragments. It could be distinguished from brown rust (Puccinia melanocephala) that has been present in Mauritius since 1978 by both light microscopy and PCR. An initial survey showed the disease was present in four experimental sites in the Centre and West of the island, where cultivar M 2705/06 was being evaluated. An island-wide survey carried out in May 2018 showed a rapid escalation of the disease all over the island with more pronounced infection in the North and East. The commercial variety R570 and cultivar R582, under selection were rated susceptible under natural inoculum pressure of orange rust. A reduction of 20.6% in sucrose content was noted in severely infected cultivar M 2705/06. There is no evidence on how and when the disease was introduced in the island, but its high incidence on R570, which occupies about 18% of area under cane, indicates a recent introduction. The insignificant level of infection in cultivar Q124 in the germplasm collection points towards a different strain of the pathogen present in Mauritius as the variety was found to be highly susceptible in Queensland, Australia. The evolution of orange rust in Mauritius will be followed in coming crop seasons.

The morpho-genetic and ecological niche analyses reveal the existence of climatically restricted Cycas zeylanica complex in Sri Lanka

Taxonomy and phylogenesis of Sri Lankan cycad species of the subsection Rumphiae has not been fully resolved and therefore, we conducted an island-wide survey of cycads of the subsection to assess their morphological or genetic variations while exploring the phylogenetic relationship between Sri Lankan Rumphiae and other world cycad species. Further, we assessed the possible distribution of the species in the region through climatic profiling, using maximum entropy modeling approach. We analyzed 21 variable morphological features in collected specimens and used the polymorphism of trnH-psbA locus to understand the phylogeny. The distance tree drawn from the principal component analysis revealed a significant variation in female reproductive structures. The maximum likelihood tree separated Sri Lankan Cycas zeylanica to a well-supported unigeneric clade (bootstrap = 96, posterior probability = 100) with shallow divergence. Ecological niche modeling supported the existence of Cycas zeylanica in South East Asia and in southern Western Ghats in India in addition to the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka. We rename the taxa as Cycas zeylanica complex based on the observed high morphological diversity of female reproductive structures which might have ascended due to multiple introductions of South East Asian cycads by long distance dispersal of seeds through sea currents.

Small Islands and Marginality: Santa Barbara Island and its Role in the Prehistory of California’s Channel Islands

ABSTRACTAs the smallest of California’s Channel Islands, Santa Barbara Island has received limited attention from archaeologists. A United States National Park Service project designed to assess its 19 known sites evolved into an island-wide survey that increased the number to 63 sites that date between 4000 and 600 years ago. Most are small shell and lithic scatters, although some are larger shell middens with greater faunal and artifact diversity. Their constituents and geographic distribution indicate that the island not only served as a stopover during inter-island travel but was occupied for longer periods to target local resources such as marine mammal rookeries. Our research presents an opportunity to evaluate the significance of this island to prehistoric communities throughout the archipelago. On a broader level, it provides insights into the important roles that small islands have played in prehistoric lifeways as well as perceptions of marginality.

A nationwide survey of hospital-based thalassemia patients and standards of care and a preliminary assessment of the national prevention program in Sri Lanka.

ObjectivesOur aim was to describe the numbers and distribution of patients with different types of thalassemia and to assess the standards of care in all thalassemia treatment centers throughout Sri Lanka and the success of the ongoing prevention programme.MethodsThis cross-sectional island-wide survey was conducted by two trained medical graduates, who visited each thalassemia center to collect data from every patient, using a standardized form. Data was collected through review of patient registers and clinical records.ResultsWe collected data on 1774 patients from 23 centers. 1219 patients (68.7%) had homozygous β-thalassemia, 360 patients (20.3%) had hemoglobin E β-thalassemia, and 50 patients (2%) had sickle β-thalassemia. There were unacceptably high serum ferritin levels in almost all centers. The annual number of births of patients with β-thalassaemia varied between 45–55, with little evidence of reduction over 19 years.ConclusionsCentral coordination of the treatment and ultimately prevention of thalassemia is urgently needed in Sri Lanka. Development of expert centers with designated staff with sufficient resources will improve the quality of care and is preferred to managing patients in multiple small units.

The distribution of terrestrial pest gastropods and their damage to agricultural crops in Kandy and Nuwara Eliya districts in Sri Lanka

An island wide survey from 1999 to 2002 in Sri Lanka highlighted the presence of 18 species of exotic snails and slugs, of which most were identified as pests of agriculture crops. However, since this survey, no studies on pest gastropods have been carried out in the country. Hence, the present study was carried out in Kandy and Nuwara Eliya districts in approximately 15 hectares of agricultural land to determine the current status of these gastropods. During the study, a total of 14 terrestrial gastropod species were recorded from agricultural lands of which eight species were recognized as exotic pest gastropods. They were Deroceras reticulatum, Laevicaulis altae, Mariaella dussumieri, Milax gagates, Lissachatina fulica, Bradybaena similaris, Allopeas gracile and Subulina octona. The damage from pest gastropods was observed in many crops and especially in the seedling or nursery stage plants. The highest damage to crops in Nuwara Eliya and Kandy districts were caused by D. reticulatum and Lissachatina fulica respectively. The study indicated that the distribution range of many of these pest gastropods, especially Laevicaulis altae and Lissachatina fulica has increased during the past fifteen years. Elevation is a key environmental factor that affects their distribution in these districts.

Composition and abundance of marine debris stranded on the beaches of Sri Lanka: Results from the first island-wide survey

This study provides the first assessment of marine debris washed ashore on 22 beaches along the coast of Sri Lanka. There was an average of 4.1 large (>25 mm) and 158 small (5–25 mm) pieces of debris per square meter of beach. Classified by use, packaging material (55%) dominated the debris, followed by consumer products (25%) and fishing gear (20%). In terms of materials, plastic was the greatest contributor (93%) to marine debris. Beaches near a river mouth or city and those with a barrier had greater debris accumulations. The east coast had significantly greater small debris density, possibly due to strong northeastern monsoon currents. Large spatial heterogeneity was observed in the amount of debris. Long-term monitoring is imperative to better understand the temporal changes in, and the pathways and possible management of, marine debris.