Island Plant Research Articles

The ecology, evolution, and biogeography of dioecy in the genus Solanum: with paradigms from the strong dioecy in Solanum polygamum, to the unsuspected and cryptic dioecy in Solanum conocarpum.

• Island plants are over-exploited and "under-explored." Understanding the reproductive biology of plants, especially rare species, is fundamental to clarifying their evolution, estimating potential for change, and for creating effective conservation plans. Clarification of sexual systems like dioecy, and unusual manifestations of it in specific studies within Solanum, helps elucidate evolutionary patterns and genetic and ecological control of sex expression.• Studies of reproductive systems of two Caribbean endemics, S. polygamum and S. conocarpum, combined multifaceted analyses of field populations and of multiple generations of greenhouse plants.• The dioecy in both species is, like that in other solanums, largely cryptic, although the gender of S. polygamum flowers is obvious. The rare S. conocarpum is recognized as dioecious; floral gender is not obvious. Variation in sex expression facilitated experiments and promoted hypotheses on control and significance of morphological features and sex expression.• Confirmed dioecy in at least 15 solanums is distributed across the genus, with perhaps 6 independent origins, and with crypticity in the form of morphologically hermaphroditic, but functionally unisexual, flowers characterizing all species. Dioecy is not more strongly associated with islands. Inaperturate pollen in pistillate flowers characterizes almost all, but not the two dioecious species studied herein. Dioecy in both species indicates leakiness (rare hermaphroditic flowers on male plants) that helps explain island colonization and radiation. Leakiness allowed confirmation-usually impossible for dioecious species-of self-compatibility for S. polygamum, and thus support for the hypothesis that dioecy evolved to promote outcrossing.

Do island plant populations really have lower genetic variation than mainland populations? Effects of selection and distribution range on genetic diversity estimates.

Ecological and evolutionary studies largely assume that island populations display low levels of neutral genetic variation. However, this notion has only been formally tested in a few cases involving plant taxa, and the confounding effect of selection on genetic diversity (GD) estimates based on putatively neutral markers has typically been overlooked. Here, we generated nuclear microsatellite and plastid DNA sequence data in Periploca laevigata, a plant taxon with an island-mainland distribution area, to (i) investigate whether selection affects GD estimates of populations across contrasting habitats; and (ii) test the long-standing idea that island populations have lower GD than their mainland counterparts. Plastid data showed that colonization of the Canary Islands promoted strong lineage divergence within P.laevigata, which was accompanied by selective sweeps at several nuclear microsatellite loci. Inclusion of loci affected by strong divergent selection produced a significant downward bias in the GD estimates of the mainland lineage, but such underestimates were substantial (>14%) only when more than one loci under selection were included in the computations. When loci affected by selection were removed, we did not find evidence that insular Periploca populations have less GD than their mainland counterparts. The analysis of data obtained from a comprehensive literature survey reinforced this result, as overall comparisons of GD estimates between island and mainland populations were not significant across plant taxa (N=66), with the only exception of island endemics with narrow distributions. This study suggests that identification and removal of markers potentially affected by selection should be routinely implemented in estimates of GD, particularly if different lineages are compared. Furthermore, it provides compelling evidence that the expectation of low GD cannot be generalized to island plant populations.

Impacts of global climate change on the floras of oceanic islands – Projections, implications and current knowledge

Recent climate projections indicate substantial environmental alterations in oceanic island regions during the 21st century, setting up profound threats to insular floras. Inherent characteristics of island species and ecosystems (e.g. small population sizes, low habitat availability, isolated evolution, low functional redundancy) cause a particular vulnerability. Strong local anthropogenic pressures interact with climate change impacts and increase threats. Owing to the high degree of endemism in their floras, a disproportionally high potential for global biodiversity loss originates from climate change impacts on oceanic islands. We reviewed a growing body of research, finding evidence of emerging climate change influences as well as high potentials of future impacts on insular species and ecosystems. Threats from global climate change are not evenly distributed among the world's oceanic islands but rather vary with intrinsic (e.g. island area, structure, age and ecological complexity) and extrinsic factors (regional character, magnitude and rate of climatic alterations, local human influences). The greatest flora vulnerabilities to climate change impacts can be expected on islands of small area, low elevation and homogeneous topography. Islands of low functional redundancies will particularly suffer from high rates of co-modifications and co-extinctions due to climate-change-driven disruptions of ecological interactions. High threat potentials come from synergistic interactions between different factors, especially between climatic changes and local anthropogenic encroachments on native species and ecosystems. In addition, human responses to climate change can cause strong indirect impacts on island floras, making highly populated islands very vulnerable to secondary (derivative) effects. We provide an integrated overview of climate change-driven processes affecting oceanic island plants and depict knowledge gaps and uncertainties. The suitability of oceanic islands and their ecosystems for potential research on the field of climate change ecology is highlighted and implications for adequate research approaches are given.

Genetic consequences of cladogenetic vs. anagenetic speciation in endemic plants of oceanic islands.

Adaptive radiation is a common mode of speciation among plants endemic to oceanic islands. This pattern is one of cladogenesis, or splitting of the founder population, into diverse lineages in divergent habitats. In contrast, endemic species have also evolved primarily by simple transformations from progenitors in source regions. This is anagenesis, whereby the founding population changes genetically and morphologically over time primarily through mutation and recombination. Gene flow among populations is maintained in a homogeneous environment with no splitting events. Genetic consequences of these modes of speciation have been examined in the Juan Fernández Archipelago, which contains two principal islands of differing geological ages. This article summarizes population genetic results (nearly 4000 analyses) from examination of 15 endemic species, involving 1716 and 1870 individuals in 162 and 163 populations (with amplified fragment length polymorphisms and simple sequence repeats, respectively) in the following genera: Drimys (Winteraceae), Myrceugenia (Myrtaceae), Rhaphithamnus (Verbenaceae), Robinsonia (Asteraceae, Senecioneae) and Erigeron (Asteraceae, Astereae). The results indicate that species originating anagenetically show high levels of genetic variation within the island population and no geographic genetic partitioning. This contrasts with cladogenetic species that show less genetic diversity within and among populations. Species that have been derived anagenetically on the younger island (1-2 Ma) contain less genetic variation than those that have anagenetically speciated on the older island (4 Ma). Genetic distinctness among cladogenetically derived species on the older island is greater than among similarly derived species on the younger island. An important point is that the total genetic variation within each genus analysed is comparable, regardless of whether adaptive divergence occurs.

Patterns of genetic diversity in three plant lineages endemic to the Cape Verde Islands.

Conservation of plant diversity on islands relies on a good knowledge of the taxonomy, distribution and genetic diversity of species. In recent decades, a combination of morphology- and DNA-based approaches has become the standard for investigating island plant lineages and this has led, in some cases, to the discovery of previously overlooked diversity, including 'cryptic species'. The flora of the Cape Verde archipelago in the North Atlantic is currently thought to comprise ∼740 vascular plant species, 92 of them endemics. Despite the fact that it is considered relatively well known, there has been a 12 % increase in the number of endemics in the last two decades. Relatively few of the Cape Verde plant lineages have been included in genetic studies so far and little is known about the patterns of diversification in the archipelago. Here we present an updated list for the endemic Cape Verde flora and analyse diversity patterns for three endemic plant lineages (Cynanchum, Globularia and Umbilicus) based on one nuclear (ITS) and four plastid DNA regions. In all three lineages, we find genetic variation. In Cynanchum, we find two distinct haplotypes with no clear geographical pattern, possibly reflecting different ploidy levels. In Globularia and Umbilicus, differentiation is evident between populations from northern and southern islands. Isolation and drift resulting from the small and fragmented distributions, coupled with the significant distances separating the northern and southern islands, could explain this pattern. Overall, our study suggests that the diversity in the endemic vascular flora of Cape Verde is higher than previously thought and further work is necessary to characterize the flora.

Native New Zealand forget-me-nots (Myosotis, Boraginaceae) comprise a Pleistocene species radiation with very low genetic divergence

Reconstruction of molecular phylogenies is an important step towards understanding the evolutionary history of island plant radiations. The New Zealand forget-me-nots (Myosotis, Boraginaceae) comprise a lineage of over 40 closely related but morphologically and ecologically diverse species whose evolutionary history and taxonomy are unclear. Myosotis is a high priority for systematic research in New Zealand because a high proportion of these species are threatened, and many have restricted geographic ranges and occupy very specific habitats. Here, we investigated the relationships and age of Southern Hemisphere forget-me-nots by performing phylogenetic, molecular dating, and other analyses of DNA sequence datasets from representatives of nearly all described species. To this end, we used both chloroplast (atpI–atpH + rps16–trnQ) and nuclear ribosomal (ITS + ETS) DNA sequences, as well as amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). Our analyses showed that genus Myosotis likely arose in the Northern Hemisphere during the Miocene with the ancestor of the Southern Hemisphere lineage arising in the Pleistocene and radiating shortly thereafter. The Southern Hemisphere Myosotis species have very low levels of genetic divergence and their relationships are largely unresolved, likely due to a combination of recent radiation, hybridization, and incomplete lineage sorting. Our results are compared to those of similar studies on other New Zealand species radiations, and implications for ongoing and future Myosotis taxonomic and evolutionary research are discussed.

Sexual size dimorphism in island plants: the niche variation hypothesis and insular size changes

The niche variation hypothesis predicts insular populations exhibit increased sexual size dimorphism (SSD), to minimize intraspecific competition. Although many animal taxa conform to this prediction, insular patterns of SSD have yet to be investigated in plants. Here, we tested for differences in SSD of dioecious plants that colonised four island groups (Kermadec, Three Kings, Chatham and Auckland Islands) from New Zealand. Using herbarium collections, we quantified leaf and stem sizes of 263 individuals from 28 dioecious taxa. We developed a novel analytical technique to explore changes in the direction of SSD on islands. Lastly, we tested for evolutionary size changes of male and female plants on islands. The degree of SSD did not vary predictably between insular and mainland taxa, contrary to predictions of the niche variation hypothesis. Furthermore, the direction of SSD was not predictable on islands, while it was consistently female biased on the mainland. Our results suggest that selection favours increased size of both sexes on islands and that SSD is unpredictable for insular plants.

Demographic outcomes and ecosystem implications of giant tortoise reintroduction to Española Island, Galapagos.

Restoration of extirpated species via captive breeding has typically relied on population viability as the primary criterion for evaluating success. This criterion is inadequate when species reintroduction is undertaken to restore ecological functions and interactions. Herein we report on the demographic and ecological outcomes of a five-decade-long population restoration program for a critically endangered species of “ecosystem engineer”: the endemic Española giant Galapagos tortoise (Chelonoidis hoodensis). Our analysis of complementary datasets on tortoise demography and movement, tortoise-plant interactions and Española Island’s vegetation history indicated that the repatriated tortoise population is secure from a strictly demographic perspective: about half of tortoises released on the island since 1975 were still alive in 2007, in situ reproduction is now significant, and future extinction risk is low with or without continued repatriation. Declining survival rates, somatic growth rates, and body condition of repatriates suggests, however, that resources for continued population growth are increasingly limited. Soil stable carbon isotope analyses indicated a pronounced shift toward woody plants in the recent history of the island’s plant community, likely a legacy of changes in competitive relations between woody and herbaceous plants induced by now-eradicated feral goats and prolonged absence of tortoises. Woody plants are of concern because they block tortoise movement and hinder recruitment of cactus–a critical resource for tortoises. Tortoises restrict themselves to remnant cactus patches and areas of low woody plant density in the center of the island despite an apparent capacity to colonize a far greater range, likely because of a lack of cactus elsewhere on the island. We conclude that ecosystem-level criteria for success of species reintroduction efforts take much longer to achieve than population-level criteria; moreover, reinstatement of endangered species as fully functioning ecosystem engineers may often require large-scale habitat restoration efforts in concert with population restoration.

Distyly and incompatibility in Psychotria homalosperma (Rubiaceae), an endemic plant of the oceanic Bonin (Ogasawara) Islands

Distyly rarely occurs on oceanic islands. Indeed, this form of polymorphism is absent on the Hawaiian Islands and in New Zealand. However, Psychotria homalosperma (Rubiaceae), which is endemic to the oceanic Bonin Islands of Japan, was presumed to maintain a distylous breeding system and floral morphology. We investigated the floral and reproductive characteristics of this species and examined incompatibility in self- and intramorph pollination. Psychotria homalosperma is morphologically and functionally distylous, based on findings with the examined populations, but its stigma and anther heights are not exactly reciprocal between the two morphs. This is the second example of distyly among the flora from the Bonin Islands, the other being the endemic P. boninensis. Both of these distylous species contrast with the Hawaiian Psychotria species, which have already become dioecious. The flowers of the long (L)-styled (pin) morph of the Bonin Islands plants are completely self- and intramorph incompatible, while the flowers of the short (S)-styled (thrum) morphs are partially intramorph compatible. The S-styled morph was more abundant in the examined populations from three islands of the archipelago, probably due to the existence of partial S–S intramorph compatibility.

Herbivory and the evolution of divaricate plants: Structural defences lost on an offshore island

AbstractMany island plants are characterized by unique morphology. For example, the high branching angles and small leaves of divaricate plants are a common feature of the New Zealand flora. The divaricate growth form may be an adaptation to deter browsing by extinct avian herbivores (moa); alternatively aspects of the insular climate may be responsible. However, our understanding of the selective pressures responsible for the high branching angles and small leaves of divaricate plants is incomplete. Here, I tested for differences in traits associated with the divaricate growth form between plants from Chatham Island and the New Zealand mainland. Moa never reached the Chatham Islands and its flora is derived from plants on mainland New Zealand. Therefore, I predicted Chatham Island plants to have lost morphological adaptations that may have deterred moa herbivory. Traits were quantified on 316 individuals in the field, allowing for 12 island‐mainland taxonomic comparisons. Chatham Island plants consistently produced smaller branching angles, larger leaves, shorter internodes and larger stems than related mainland plants. Results are therefore consistent with the hypothesis that selection for small leaves and high angled branching may be relaxed on the Chatham Islands due to an absence of moa. Smaller branching angles and larger leaves may offer a competitive advantage to Chatham Island plants.

Phylogenetic signal in growth and reproductive traits and in their plasticity: theDescurainiaradiation in the Canary Islands

Despite the extensive use of phylogenetic methods in comparative plant biology, there is little information on how traits and their plastic responses can be affected by phylogenetic constraints (i.e. limitations in phenotypic expression resulting from the phylogenetic history of a lineage), particularly in plant radiations that may have occurred over a relatively short time period. In this study, we examined phylogenetic constraints in a monophyletic group of species of Descurainia (Brassicaceae) endemic to the Canary Islands. We measured growth and reproductive traits in a glasshouse experiment representing 17 populations of eight taxa previously analysed in a phylogenetic context. Two water availability treatments were used to assess the plasticity of the examined traits. Most of the traits did not show strong phylogenetic signal; only weak evidence for phylogenetic constraint was found in traits related to reproduction (total number of flowers, onset of flowering) and biomass allocation to roots. Substantial levels of plasticity were observed in all the examined traits, but plasticity showed little interaction between treatment and taxon, suggesting little divergence among taxa. Our study provides evidence that phylogenetic constraints in these quantitative traits, including their plastic expression, have not played a significant role in the pattern of phenotypic diversification of this island plant group. Phenotypic plasticity may thus have favoured adjustment to the habitats occupied by each species during the radiation process. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 174, 384–398.

Genetic and Morphological Variation of Two Rare Species of Lepidium (Brassicaceae) on Mangere Island, Chatham Islands, and Implications for Their Conservation Management

The genus Lepidium in New Zealand comprises a number of threatened and endemic species. Two recently described species, Lepidium panniforme and L. oblitum, have a restricted distribution on the remote and difficult to access Mangere Island, Chatham Islands. We examined the genetic and morphological variation of L. panniforme and L. oblitum on Mangere Island to assess the best conservation management options. Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) data and morphological data were used to detect finer scale variation in L. panniforme and L. oblitum. Bayesian analysis of AFLP genotypes detected up to four genetic clusters on Mangere Island. The morphological data were also variable, although better reflected the taxonomic treatment of the Mangere Island plants. The conservation implications of such high genetic and morphological variation over such a small spatial scale are discussed, to propose the best method for ensuring the ongoing survival of these island endemics.

Are there general patterns in plant defence against megaherbivores?

Field surveys were conducted to test whether plants deploy structural defences in ways that match the distribution of megaherbivores. In Western Australian scrublands, where adult plants are within the reach of megaherbivores, structural defences increased vertically and were deployed preferentially by adult plants. Conversely, in woodlands of Eastern Australia and California, where adult plants grow above the reach of megaherbivores, structural defences decreased vertically. Populations of closely-related taxa on offshore islands exhibited significant reductions in defence in the absence of megaherbivores. The results also demonstrate that island plant taxa can evolve vertical changes in defence after colonizing continents, where they are exposed to megaherbivores. Overall, the results of the present study illustrate a complex array of spatial patterns in plant defence that match the distribution and foraging behaviour of large mammals. When interpreted alongside previous work demonstrating similar spatial patterns in other types of plant defence, the results may help to unify our understanding of how megaherbivores have shaped the evolution of plant form and function. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 111, 38–48.

Landscape genetics and wing morphometrics show a lack of structuring across island and coastal populations of the drone fly in theMediterranean

AbstractTheMediterranean basin is a region of species richness, rarity and endemism, and is thus an area of significant conservation importance. Conservation of insect biodiversity benefits pollination services in the fragmentedMediterranean landscape. However, the question of the distribution patterns of an important long‐distance pollen disperser, the hoverflyEristalis tenax(Diptera,Syrphidae), remains open. Therefore, we explored the spatial distribution of genetic and phenotypic diversity of this species across theCentral‐EasternMediterranean. Connectivity between continental and island populations ofE. tenaxwas studied by integrating molecular (allozyme loci and mitochondrialDNAsequences of the cytochromecoxidase subunit I gene) and phenotypic data (wing geometric morphometrics). Allozyme (FSTvalues,STRUCTUREanalysis, analysis of molecular variance) and phenotypic data (wing shape) and landscape genetics (Alleles in Space analysis) suggest thatE. tenaxpopulations within theMediterranean are largely connected, and that there is an absence of large‐scale geographic structuring. Intraspecific variability was only 1.54% among samples, and theMediterranean populations showed an almost complete lack ofCOI mtDNAhaplotype diversity. Thus, our results suggest thatE. tenaxpopulations are well mixed, and that a considerable amount of gene flow takes place, even among populations that are a great distance apart. AsE. tenax's ecological amplitude is wide, and the species is therefore widespread in both natural and man‐made landscapes, it probably maintains a high level of population similarity by its large population sizes (as revealed by theθparameter) and constant intermixing among populations. From an applied point of view, large‐scale species intermixing enables pollen spread across distant island plant populations, especially those threatened by extinction.

Densities of Ecological Replacement Herbivores Required to Restore Plant Communities: A Case Study of Giant Tortoises on Pinta Island, Galápagos

AbstractLoss of native herbivores and introduction of livestock in many arid and semi‐arid ecosystems around the world has shifted the competitive balance from herbaceous to woody plants, leading to biodiversity loss, reduced plant productivity, and soil erosion. To restore functions of these ecosystems, ecological replacements have been proposed as substitutes for extinct native herbivores. Here we predict how an ecological replacement giant tortoise population (Chelonoidis spp.) would interact with woody plants on Pinta Island in the Galápagos Archipelago, where a small group of replacement tortoises was introduced in 2010 to initiate restoration of the island's plant community. We developed an individual‐based, spatially explicit simulation model that incorporated field‐derived tortoise behavior and tortoise–plant interaction data to test whether tortoise introductions could lead to broad‐scale changes in the plant community and, if so, at what tortoise densities. Tortoises reduced vegetation density in most (81%) 50‐year‐long simulations if the tortoise density was at least 0.7 per hectare, a value well below typical densities. In a smaller proportion of simulations (30%), tortoises increased local vegetation patchiness. Our results suggest that even moderate‐density tortoise populations can reverse woody plant encroachment. Deployment of ecological replacement giant tortoises may therefore be a viable approach for restoring other arid and semi‐arid ecosystems where a native herbivore that previously had strong interactions with the plant community has gone extinct.

Floral biology and flower visitors on subantarctic Campbell Island

Island plants often show reduced floral pigmentation and display size compared with mainland relatives, which is commonly thought to relate to a lack of specialized pollinators. Some species on New Zealand's subantarctic islands have spectacular, highly pigmented inflorescences, yet the depauperate insect fauna provides little apparent opportunity for biotic pollination. We document breeding systems and floral visitors for six Campbell Island species. All species tested had lipid-rich rather than starchy pollen and some produced nectar. Pleurophyllum hookeri appeared to be self-incompatible, but P. criniferum, Veronica benthamii and Damnamenia vernicosa were all capable of selfing. Daytime floral visitors were predominantly small Diptera and the flightless Muscid, Coenosis filipennis. The nocturnal wētā, Notoplectron campbellensis (Orthoptera), visited V. benthamii flowers and carried pollen between male and female plants of Anisotome latifolia and Bulbinella rossii. Biotic pollination might be more important in the subantarctic than previously thought and wētā are possibly key flower visitors.

Baker's law and the island syndromes in bryophytes

SummaryThe evolution of island syndromes has long served as a model to understand the mechanisms accounting for phenotypic differentiation. Combining literature data with actual observations, we determine whether typical syndromes such as the loss of dispersal power and the bias towards self‐compatibility (Baker's law) apply to vagile organisms, using bryophytes as a model.The life‐history traits (LHTs) observed in oceanic island floras were statistically different from those observed on continents, evidencing the evolution of island syndromes. In contrast,LHTs of continental and continental island floras were similar, pointing to differences in migration intensity between continents, continental islands and oceanic islands.The proportion of bisexual species was significantly higher on oceanic islands than on continents. A significant proportion of species that are unisexual or bisexual on continents shifted towards exclusive bisexuality on oceanic islands, suggesting thatBaker's law applies to bryophytes. The underlying mechanisms, however, probably differ fromin situselection for selfing.The proportion of species producing specialized asexual diaspores, which are assumed to play a role in short‐distance dispersal (SDD), was higher on oceanic islands than on continents. The proportion of species producing spores, which are involved in long‐distance dispersal (LDD), exhibited the reverse trend, suggesting a shift in the prevalent reproductive strategy to favourSDDon oceanic islands. Approximately 50% of the species, however, maintained the ability to produce sporophytes on oceanic islands, and the relative frequency of fertile shoots within collections of four model species was even higher on islands than on continents.Synthesis. Bryophytes exhibit typical island syndromes, indicating that migration rates between oceanic islands and continents are not sufficient to prevent the effects of genetic drift and contradicting the view that the sea does not impede migration in the group. Significant shifts in life‐history traits (LHTs) towards increased production of specialized asexual diaspores and decreased sporophyte production on oceanic islands indeed point to a global loss of long‐distance dispersal (LDD) ability. The maintenance of traits characteristic forLDDin a large number of species has, however, substantial consequences for our understanding of island plant evolution, and in particular, for our vision of islands as evolutionary dead ends.

A biogeographic island

book reviews ISSN 1948‐6596 A biogeographic island Plant Geography of Chile. Plant and Vegetation, Volume 5. Andres Moreira‐Munoz, 2011, Springer. 320 pp. £153.00 (hardback). ISBN: 978‐0‐948‐18747‐8. http//www.springer.com/ It is of some surprise that we have had to wait just over a century, since the appearance of Karl Frie‐ drich Reiche’s celebrated work Grundzuge der Pflanzenverbreitung in 1907, for a new look at the plant geography of Chile. It is quite surprising because this long, thin country, covering more degrees of latitude than any other, has some of the most fascinating physical geography of any country on the planet. In fact its geography was once described as ‘crazy’, in the title of the much‐ cited work by the Chilean author Subercaseaux (1940): “Chile o una loca geografia”. Contained by the imposing Andean chain and the vast Pacific Ocean, continental Chile is a biogeographic island of extraordinary contrasts. The extremes are the Atacama Desert in the north, which is the driest and coolest, and to the south the sub‐Antarctic forests are some of the wettest in the world. What a ‘scientific playground’ for biologists from all disciplines, particularly those interested in bio‐ geography! But what makes it even more mouth‐ watering are its Gondwanan origins and the fact that the Chilean territory includes the fascinating and famous Pacific offshore islands of Rapa Nui (Easter Island), the Juan Fernandez Archipelago and the lesser known Islas Desventuradas. The present volume is rightfully dedicated to Karl Friedrich Reiche, by the author, who him‐ self comes from an important Chilean botanical dynasty. Carlos Munoz Pizarro, the grandfather of Andres Moreira‐Munoz, is well known for his dedi‐ cation to the Chilean flora and passion for its con‐ servation—he published widely on both subjects. His dedication was such that he named his three daughters after Poaceae (grass family) genera. One of them, Melica Munoz‐Schick, the mother of the author, followed in her father’s footsteps and became curator of the National Museum of Natu‐ ral History in Santiago for a period of 42 years where she researched and published widely on the Chilean flora. This lineage has of course been very influential on the author’s chosen career as a plant scientist and has now led to this authorita‐ tive work on the plant geography of Chile, which was also the subject of his recent PhD (Moreira‐ Munoz 2007). Each chapter within the five main sections of the book commences with an abstract and con‐ cludes with a comprehensive list of references. The layout is pleasing, with use of high‐quality colour photographs, line drawings and very infor‐ mative and often comparative maps. The first chapter gives an overview of the physical geogra‐ phy (past and present) which has influenced the vascular flora and its biogeographical patterns. The second chapter is a very useful chronology of the discovery of the Chilean flora, tracing the his‐ tory of the botanists and naturalists who helped to shape Chilean botany. It starts with the arrival of Hernando de Magallanes (Ferdinand Magellan) in the Magellan Straits in 1520 and details the many Europeans from France, Germany and Spain in particular. It includes the young Charles Darwin, whose visit to south and central Chile most influ‐ enced his famed Theory of Evolution. Rightfully, much is made of the extraordinarily high levels of endemism within the Chilean flora: 4 families, 84 genera and 1933 species. The number of endemic species equates to 45% of the flora and represents the highest percentage of any South American country. Because of these high levels of endemism (and because of the immense threats it faces) 40% of continental Chile has been declared a Biodiver‐ sity Hot Spot, which is known as the Chilean Win‐ ter Rainfall–Valdivian Forests (Moreira‐Munoz 2005). These integral links exemplify the relatively new field of conservation biogeography (Whittaker et al. 2005). In Chapter 6 the author discusses the challenges of conservation biogeog‐ raphy effectively. The recent (last 40 years) rapid frontiers of biogeography 5.2, 2013 — © 2013 the authors; journal compilation © 2013 The International Biogeography Society

A Study on the Flora of 15 Islands in the Western Sea of Jeollanamdo Province, Korea

This study aims to investigate the flora of 15 islands in Yeonggwang, Shinan, and Mokpo of the Jeollanamdo province and the distribution of major plants in order to use the results as fundamental data for studies on plants in islands. Field surveys were performed 25 times from 2004 to 2010 to investigate the flora in these regions. A total of 793 taxa including 123 families, 421 genera, 695 species, 2 subspeices, 88 varieties, and 8 forms was found. Korean endemic plants including Hepatica insularis and Galium koreanum were 6 taxa. 25 taxa of rare plants including Trachomitum lancifolium, Daphne kiusiana, and Centranthera cochinchinensis var. lutea were confirmed 120 taxa floristic special plant species were confirmed; 11 taxa of the fifth class, four taxa of the fourth class, 28 taxa of the third class. 78 taxa of naturalized plants were confirmed.

Population Genetics and Reintroduction Performance ofSolanum conocarpum, an Endemic Shrub of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands

Numerous Virgin Islands plants have become rare or extinct over the last 200 years due to cultivation, development, and introduction of exotic species. St. John endemic Solanum conocarpum (Solanaceae) has fewer than 200 known individuals currently extant in the wild. DNA fingerprinting with RAPD PCR was used to assess the population genetics of S. conocarpum and congener S. polygamum. In addition, controlled crosses were performed to determine whether the plant was self-incompatible. Finally, seedlings were outplanted and monitored to (1) restore small populations and (2) compare performance of individuals from the largest and smallest populations of the species. Population genetic analysis revealed that species level diversity in S. conocarpum remains high, but that virtually all diversity is confined to a single population. The crosses performed indicated that the species is completely selfincompatible. While seedlings from the smallest population performed poorly in the greenhouse by comparison with plants from the large population with higher genetic diversity, both groups performed equally well in the field over a three-year period. The species' high level of overall diversity and ability to survive even when diversity is reduced suggest that prospects for conservation are good. In order to ensure the survival of the species, all populations should be brought up to sizes large enough to allow outcrossing, and ex-situ conservation should be employed.