Ishihara Pseudoisochromatic Plates Research Articles

Development and validation of a new colour vision screener: A multi‐centre study

Aims/Purpose: The detection of acquired and congenital colour vision deficiency is of importance in the clinic for the early detection of ocular disease and determination of occupational suitability. Conventional methods of colour vision screening often fail to pass all normals and/or correctly identify those with acquired and congenital colour vision deficiency. The Colour Vision Screener (CVS) test [1] was developed to utilize an improved understanding of colour vision mechanisms to overcome the limitations present in conventional colour screening methods. This study aimed to use a robust multi‐centre methodology to fully validate the CVS test.Methods: Over 400 participants, including 124 normal trichromats, 166 deutans and 62 protans, were recruited from 10 international Colour Assessment and Diagnosis (CAD) testing centres. Each participant completed the CVS and the CAD test with calibrated visual displays. The red/green (RG) and yellow/blue (YB) CVS test sensitivity and specificity were established. The RG statistics were compared to the ‘gold standard’ reference for screening for RG congenital colour vision deficiency—the Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plate test.Results: The CVS test correctly identified ~99.1% of normal trichromats. All subjects with congenital RG loss and acquired loss on top of congenital RG deficiency were identified as having abnormal colour vision by the CVS. The Ishihara test, based upon 0 errors on the first 25 plates of the 38‐plate edition, correctly identifies ~80.6% of normal trichromats and 99.5% of subjects with congenital RG loss.Conclusions: Data collected across 10 international CAD centres demonstrate that the CVS can achieve a high sensitivity without sacrificing specificity. This multi‐centre study demonstrates that the CVS is quick, efficient, and easy to use and allows for the rapid and reliable screening of congenital and acquired colour vision deficiencies in large populations.Reference1. Barbur JL, Rodriguez‐Carmona M, Evans BEW. Colour vision assessment‐3. An efficient, two‐step, colour assessment protocol. Colour Research & Application 2021; 46: 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1002/col.22599

The Prevalence of Congenital Color Vision Abnormality Among Patients Attending a Tertiary Eye Care Center in Southern India.

Background and objective Color vision abnormality is a condition where the faculty to identify one or more primary colors is either defective (anomalous) or absent (anopia). Occupations like armed forces, merchant navy, navigation, and police and fire services require normal color vision. There is a scarcity of data in the literature regarding the prevalence of congenital color vision abnormality in patients in South India. In light of this, the present study aimed to find the prevalence of congenital color vision abnormality in patients attending the Outpatient Department (OPD) at a tertiary eye care center in South India. Materials and methods This was a descriptive cross-sectional study conducted at a tertiary eye care center in South India from December 2014 to December 2016. Patients with a best-corrected visual acuity of 20/20, normal direct and consensual pupillary light reflex, normal anterior segment, and undilated fundus examination were included. Color vision was assessed using Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates, American Optical Hardy-Rand-Rittler (AO HRR), and then the Farnsworth Munsell D15 arrangement test. All the results were tabulated and statistically analyzed. Statistical significance was calculated using the ANOVA test. Results A total of 371 patients were screened for color vision abnormality; 184 (49.59%) patients were males and 187 (50.40%)were females. Out of 371 patients in the study, 363(98.10%) had normal color vision while eight patients (2.16%) had color vision abnormality. Of the eight patients with color vision abnormalities, six (75%) had abnormal color vision on all three tests and two(25%) had an abnormality on only two tests (Ishihara and AO HRR). Out of 184 males in the study, eight patients (4.34%) had abnormal color vision while none of the 187 females had color vision abnormality; this difference was statistically significant (p=0.03). Conclusions Early diagnosis and providing education and awareness of this condition are necessary as part of guiding young people with regard to their career options and we recommend that all children should undergo color vision screening before entering high school.

Validation of Titmus vision screener V4 for diagnosing refractory errors and colour blindness: An analogy with quotidian

BackgroundThis study aims at evaluating the validity profile of Titmus vision screener V4 for gauging visual acuity and colour perception as a screening tool. MethodsEleven hundred young adults attending eye OPD at a tertiary care center were included in the study. All individuals underwent distance visual acuity (DVA) measurement with Snellen chart and Titmus vision screener V4, at 6 m on the same day. Later, these individuals underwent colour vision testing with Ishihara pseudo isochromatic plates and Titmus vision screener V4. ResultsThe age distribution ranged from 19 to 53 years with mean age as 26.6 years. Males (87.4%) were more as compared to females. Mean DVA measured by Snellen's chart and Titmus vision screener V4 were 0.088 ± 0.15 and 0.110 ± 0.17, respectively (p = 0.000). Mean difference between DVA by Snellen's chart and Titmus screener V4 was −0.021 ± 0.82 with 95% CI (−0.026 to −0.016). For measuring visual acuity, Titmus vision screener V4 showed a sensitivity of 99.5% and specificity of 90.6%. Negative predictive value and positive predictive value were 99.6% and 85.6%, respectively. For diagnosing colour perception, the Titmus vision screener V4 showed a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 99.8%. The negative predictive value and positive predictive value were 100% and 88.8% respectively. Area under the curve of receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was 0.960 with 95%CI (0.949–0.972). ConclusionOur study supports use of Titmus vision screener V4 as an excellent screening tool for measurement of visual acuity as well as colour perception.

A Computer-Based Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue (CFM-100) Test in Pilots' Medical Assessments.

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated the effectiveness and identified the cutoff values of the computer-based Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue (CFM-100) test for screening color vision deficiencies in the pre-employment examination of civil aviators in China.METHODS: Firstly, subjects were stratified into normal, color weakness, and color blindness with the Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plate test (IPPT) by two ophthalmologists. Then they randomly completed CFM-100 and Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue (FM-100) tests. Total error scores (TES) and the time taken for the CFM-100 and FM-100 were analyzed and the cutoff values for the CFM-100 were determined.RESULTS: Of 218 subjects, 159 were normal while 59 were diagnosed with dyschromatopsia. The TES of the CFM-100 were congruent with those of the FM-100 (20.0 ± 18.8 vs. 20.6 ± 17.7, 160.9 ± 66.0 vs. 151.1 ± 66.4). The testing time for the CFM-100, however, was less than the FM-100 (10.3 ± 2.8 min vs. 12.9 ± 2.9 min, 7.8 ± 2.5 min vs. 12.6 ± 3.3 min). The correlation coefficient R was 0.93 and Cohen's kappa was 0.89 for the two methods. Further analyses defined 34 as the cutoff value to differentiate excellent from fair color discrimination (sensitivity 58.0%, specificity 94.7%) and 101 as the cutoff value to judge fair vs. poor (sensitivity and specificity both 98.8%) for the CFM-100. The cut-off value was 72 for distinguishing normal from defective color vision (sensitivity 96.6%, specificity 98.7%) and 110 was for distinguishing color weakness from color blindness (sensitivity 97.6%, specificity 97.7%) for the CFM-100.CONCLUSIONS: The CFM-100 is an effective method for the diagnosis of dyschromatopsia with high sensitivity in screening airline pilots.Zhang Y, Ma J, Cheng S, Hu W. A computer-based Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue (CFM-100) test in pilots' medical assessments. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2022; 93(4):362-367.

Limitation of standard pseudoisochromatic plates in identifying colour vision deficiencies when compared with genetic testing.

The Ishihara pseudoisochromatic (PIC) plate test is the most used test for identifying red-green colour-deficient individuals, but it is not known how the Ishihara results compare with that of genetics testing. Here, the outcome of genotype analysis of OPN1LW and OPN1MW was compared with that of the Ishihara (24-plate ed., 1964) and the Hardy-Rand-Rittler (4th ed. 2002) PIC plate tests. Healthy participants with normal habitual visual acuity (n = 454, 16-24 years; 193 males; logMAR ≤ 0.00) gave saliva samples for opsin gene analysis and performed the two PIC plate tests as part of a cross-sectional study. The criteria for failing the PIC tests were according to manufacturers' instructions. DNA was extracted and used in genotyping assays of OPN1LW and OPN1MW genes from each participant using the Agena MassArray genotyping system. Ten male (5.2%) and 3 (1.1%) female participants were identified as red-green colour deficient based on PIC tests alone. The combination of MassArray and PIC test results identified 10.4% of male and 0.8% of female participants to be colour deficient (males: 0.5% protan and 9.9% deutan; females: 0.8% deutan). Hardy-Weinberg calculations based on male frequencies from combining the MassArray and the PIC test results gave female frequency estimates of colour deficiency and carriers closely matching measured frequencies. MassArray identified twice as many colour-deficient males as identified from PIC tests alone. Combining results from MassArray and the PIC tests proves to be more reliable than any single test at correctly identifying red-green colour-deficient individuals and carriers.

The prevalence of colour vision deficiency, parent-reported, and child reported difficulties among 10- to 16-year-old school children in the Galle education zone, Sri Lanka

Introduction 
 Colour vision deficiency (CVD) is an X-linked recessive disease. The prevalence of CVD varies from race to race. This study was conducted to determine the prevalence of CVD among school children (ages 10-16) in Galle educational zone, Sri Lanka.
 Methods
 A total of 566 students (260 males, 306 females) were examined with Ishihara pseudo-isochromatic colour plates. The parental questionnaire was used to obtain a family history of CVD, the ability of the child to select coloured objects and past medical history. 
 Results
 The overall prevalence of CVD was 1.4% (8 boys) with a prevalence of 3.1% for males. Six Sinhala, one Tamil and one Muslim boy had CVD. All affected children had negative histories of previous systemic and ocular disease or chronic use of medications. The visual acuity and the fundus were normal in all affected children. Seven (1.23%) had deuteranomaly, while one (0.17%) had protanomaly. 75% (06) of the parents were unaware of their child's defect, while 12.5% (01) reported a positive family history. Parental reporting of difficulties in selecting coloured objects in the child's day-to-day activities were not significant (p>0.05 Fisher's exact test). CVD children had reported difficulties in identifying colour objects in television/computer programmes and separation of cooked from uncooked food (p

Prevalence of inherited color vision deficiency among male school teenagers in Nablus, Palestine

AIM: To find out the prevalence of inherited color vision deficiency (CVD) among Palestinian male-school children aged 14-18 and compare it with other eastern and western countries. METHODS: Six hundred and thirty-four male subjects (n=634) aged 14-18 from Palestinian Governorate of Nablus were randomly selected and screened using Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates. Subjects who failed Ishihara screening were tested further with computer software of Farnsworth-Munsell 100 Hue test. RESULTS: Out of the 634 male participants, 597 were included in the study and 8.0% of them (48 males) demonstrated red-green CVD. 5.4%, 2.3% and 0.3% of the 48 males exhibited deutan, protan and total color vision deficiency (monochromacy), respectively. CONCLUSION: The results show that the prevalence of red-green CVD among the male school children from Palestinian Governorate of Nablus is not significantly different from that of male populations in nearby and Western countries.

Prevalence of color vision deficiency among school-going boys in South India.

Purpose:Impact of color vision deficiency (CVD) on activities at school and productivity at work and consequential psychosocial difficulties has been reported. Although early detection and awareness help in overcoming these difficulties, screening for CVD is not a part of the school eye-screening initiatives in many countries. This study aimed at reporting the prevalence of CVD among school-going boys in Kanchipuram district, South India.Methods:The study was carried out as part of a school eye-screening program (SES) conducted in Kanchipuram district, Tamil Nadu, India for children between 6 and 17 years. The SES followed a three-phased protocol, which also included screening for CVD for all the boys between 11 and 17 years. The boys underwent CVD screening with Dalton's pseudo isochromatic plates (PIPs) followed by confirmation with Ishihara's PIP. The data were analyzed and the proportion of CVD in boys among different class grades, type of schools, location of schools, blocks of the district, and other clinical characteristics are presented.Results:Totally 250,052 children were screened in 1047 schools of which 74986 (60.61%) were boys between 11 and 17 years (mean age: 13.75 ± 1.91). The overall prevalence of CVD was found to be 2.76% (n = 2073; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.65–2.88). CVD was associated with urban locations (3.17% odds ratio [OR]: 1.90 95%CI: 1.69–2.13 P < 0.05) and public schooling (2.87%) (OR: 1.29 95%CI: 1.17–1.43 P < 0.05). Boys with CVD were less likely to have vision impairment (P = 0.002) and myopia (P < 0.001) as compared with boys with normal color vision. There was no significant difference in the proportion of other ocular conditions between children with and without CVD (P > 0.05).Conclusion:The study shows a significant proportion of CVD among boys in Kanchipuram district, India and its association with various demographic and clinical characteristics. Identification of CVD and counseling the stakeholders earlier through school children screening is crucial.

Dalton's pseudo‐isochromatic plates and congenital colour vision deficiency

BackgroundDiagnosing colour vision deficiency is vital, owing to its impact on the choice of career and activities of daily living. Conventional screening methods require frequent replacement due to soiling of the materials, and hence are expensive and not feasible for large‐scale community screening. This study aims to construct and validate a new screening tool, Dalton's pseudo‐isochromatic plates (PIP), addressing the disadvantages of the conventional methods.MethodsThe two phases of the study included the construction and validation of the Dalton's PIP. Construction involved utilising specific wavelengths based on spectral tuning, selection of numerals as targets for the chart and identification of a material with durability and resistance to wear and tear. Validation of the chart was done against the 38‐plate edition of Ishihara's PIP by two masked examiners for 1,019 school children aged between 11–17-years (mean ± SD: 14 ± 2-years) as part of a school eye‐health program.ResultsThe sensitivity and the specificity of the Dalton's PIP was found to be 94.12 per cent (95% CI 71.31–99.85) and 99.60 per cent (95% CI 98.98–99.89) respectively and the positive and negative predictive values were 80 per cent and 99.90 per cent respectively. Dalton's PIP when used with a failure criterion of less than three plates correct in two screening sets had the maximum sensitivity and specificity and the area under the curve was 0.96 (95% CI 0.90–0.99, p < 0.05).ConclusionThe newly constructed Dalton's PIP is found to be a valid screening tool to detect congenital colour vision deficiency and is comparable to the Ishihara PIP. This screening tool with its shorter screening time, cost and longer durability would effectively serve in large‐scale vision screening programs.

Prospective study to evaluate incidence and indicators for early detection of ethambutol toxicity

AimsTo evaluate incidence of toxic optic neuropathy in patients receiving ethambutol (EMB) for 6 months and to identify its early indicators.MethodsWe included 50 patients on anti-tubercular therapy (ATT) including EMB...

EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE TO TOBACCO ON MODULATION OF COLOR VISION

The chronic use of cigarettes causes toxic and oxidative effects on the visual system, which can cause changes in color vision. Although there are studies on the harmful effects of tobacco in active smokers, the literature on secondhand/passive smokers (or environmental tobacco smoke) is still scarce. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the ability of color vision in active and passive smokers. This is a cross-sectional observational study in which 103 individuals were divided pseudorandomly into 3 groups: control group (CG) n = 44 individuals (72 eyes), with a mean age of 28.65 ± 7.90; group of passive smokers (GPS) n = 28 (56 eyes), mean age 28.74 ± 9.42; group of active smokers (GAS) n = 31 (60 eyes), mean age 34.91 ± 11.30. The psychophysical evaluation of color vision was performed using the Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates, the computer program of the Freiburg Visual Acuity &amp; Contrast Test, version 3.7, and the desaturated Lanthony D15 ordering test. The results indicate that there was no correlation in GAS and GPS with age, time of exposure to tobacco and daily consumption. It was observed that both GAS and GPS showed changes in visual acuity (P &lt;0.05), and only GPS showed changes in color vision (P &lt;0.05); GFP showed a deficit in visual acuity and worse color vision when compared to GAS (P &lt;0.05). These results are discussed in relation to the biochemical and pathophysiological effects that exposure to cigarettes may have on the visual system, which would explain the functional changes observed. We conclude that passive and active smokers have impaired color vision and that the psychophysical methods used in this study are effective for the subclinical tracking of changes in color vision.

Investigation of relationship between colour discrimination ability and stereoscopic acuity using Farnsworth Munsell 100 hue test and stereo tests

ObjectiveTo evaluate the effect of colour discrimination ability on the stereoscopic acuity by comparing individuals having congenital colour vision deficiency (CCVD) with healthy individuals. DesignA comparative study. ParticipantsThe study included 53 binocular males, of whom 26 (mean age, 36.04 ± 9.30 years) were in the healthy group and 27 (mean age, 33.04 ± 9.81 years) were in the CCVD group. MethodsThe following tests were used: the Ishihara pseudo-isochromatic plate test for detecting CCVD, the Farnsworth Munsell 100 (FM100) hue test for colour discrimination ability, the TNO and Titmus stereo tests for stereoscopic acuity. ResultsIn the CCVD group, 20 males were deutan and 7 males were protan. According to the FM100 hue test, total error score (TES), blue/yellow (b/y) local error score (LES), and red/green LES were significantly lower in the healthy group (30.23 ± 18.78, 15.15 ± 10.38, and 13.88 ± 11.93, respectively) than in the CCVD group (133.59 ± 67.45, 41.15 ± 22.03, and 89.15 ± 52.16, respectively) (p < 0.01 for each). The stereo test scores revealed significantly higher stereoscopic acuity in the healthy group (43.85 ± 33.92 arcsec for the TNO test and 40.00 ± 0.00 arcsec for the Titmus test) than in the CCVD group (93.33 ± 90.51 arcsec for TNO stereo test and 52.96 ± 24.62 arcsec for the Titmus test) (p < 0.05 for each). The TNO test score was significantly and positively correlated with the TES (r = 0.390, p = 0.049) and b/y LES (r = 0.490, p = 0.011) in the healthy group. ConclusionsColour discrimination ability affected stereoscopic acuity. Moreover, stereoscopic acuity increased with increasing colour discrimination ability, which could be originated from the b/y colour region.

Detection of Early Ethambutol Ocular Toxicity: Ishihara Pseudoisochromatic Plates versus the Farnsworth D-15 Hue Test

Detection of Early Ethambutol Ocular Toxicity: Ishihara Pseudoisochromatic Plates versus the Farnsworth D-15 Hue Test

Color Vision Deficiency in Medical Students in Jammu &amp; Kashmir, India

Non recognition of any of the three colors is known as color blindness. Color blindness is the commonly used term for deficiency of color vision. Word color blindness is a misnomer as anyone labeled as it, is extremely rare to be totally color blind hence more correctly called color vision deficiencies (CVD). Color vision is a function of three types of cone pigments present in retina. The incidence of Color vision deficiency is common in medical profession and affects the diagnosis and treatment of patients but still it remains the most neglected aspect of vision. Color is very important sign used in medical profession, but there is no effective screening for Color Vision Deficiency (CVD) at any level of medical profession. The present study was undertaken to find out CVD in medical students of Government medical college Srinagar.&#x0D; Material and Method: A total of 300 medical students (MBBS, BDS, NURSING) including 154 males and 146 females between 18-20 years of age were examined for CVD in Medical College using Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates. After taking history on structured proforma the students were shown Ishihara’s test plates under day light at normal reading distance.&#x0D; Results: Among 154 males, 11 were color deficient (7.14%), and among 146 females, 1 (0.68%) had color vision deficiency. Deutranomalia (41.6%) was the most common type of CVD followed by Protanomalia (25%) then Protanopia (16.7%) and Deutranopia (16.7%), respectively.&#x0D; Conclusions: With this high incidence of color vision deficiency, students with CVD may feel difficulty in day-today practice in medical field. So, screening for CVD in medical students at the time of admission is very important which may help in early management of CVD and with timely counseling proper adaptive strategies can be adopted.

Measuring Color Perception through Laser Mitigation Coatings on Aircraft Windshields

Ground-based laser illuminations directed towards arriving and departing aircraft have increased in the past decade. A laser aimed at the windshield of an aircraft may distract a pilot and compromise safety. Previous studies provided empirical evidence of laser intensity in the flight deck from ground-based laser illumination events and the potential for adverse effects to flight safety. Most recent studies focused on testing the application of various coatings to aircraft windshields in order to reduce the effects of laser exposure to crewmembers. Safe and efficient flight operations depend on the ability of a pilot to see normal spectrums of color. Therefore, this study used the Ishihara Pseudoisochromatic Plates Color Vision Test to investigate participants’ color perception through an aircraft windshield coated with a photoresponsive nanocomposite film designed to reduce laser intensity from entering a flight deck. This study tested the hypothesis that there were no differences between color vision test scores when conducting trials with coated and non-coated windshields. Participants were individuals who held a current FAA medical certificate and held a minimum of a student pilot certificate (N = 104). Data analysis consisted of a repeated measures design that included within-subjects factors where each of the participants was tested from two trials, each under two conditions: coated and non-coated. The order of trials was altered using a counterbalancing technique which also provided a between-subjects factor. A paired-samples t-test was calculated to compare the mean of error by participants when taking the Ishihara Test through the non-coated windshield to the mean of the error by participants when taking the test through the coated windshield. No significant difference from the non-coated to the coated windshield was found (t(103) = 1.274, p > 0.05, n = 104). Findings suggest that effective color vision can be maintained through photoresponsive nanocomposite coatings.

Neural activation patterns and connectivity in visual attention during Number and Non-number processing: An ERP study using the Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates

Neural activation patterns and connectivity in visual attention during Number and Non-number processing: An ERP study using the Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates

Neural activation patterns and connectivity in visual attention during Number and Non-number processing: An ERP study using the Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates.

Visual cognitive function is important to build up executive function in daily life. Perception of visual Number form (e.g., Arabic digit) and numerosity (magnitude of the Number) is of interest to cognitive neuroscientists. Neural correlates and the functional measurement of Number representations are complex occurrences when their semantic categories are assimilated with other concepts of shape and colour. Colour perception can be processed further to modulate visual cognition. The Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates are one of the best and most common screening tools for basic red-green colour vision testing. However, there is a lack of study of visual cognitive function assessment using these pseudoisochromatic plates. We recruited 25 healthy normal trichromat volunteers and extended these studies using a 128-sensor net to record event-related EEG. Subjects were asked to respond by pressing Numbered buttons when they saw the Number and Non-number plates of the Ishihara colour vision test. Amplitudes and latencies of N100 and P300 event related potential (ERP) components were analysed from 19 electrode sites in the international 10-20 system. Abrain topographic map, cortical activation patterns and Granger causation (effective connectivity) were analysed from 128 electrode sites. No major significant differences between N100 ERP components in either stimulus indicate early selective attention processing was similar for Number and Non-number plate stimuli, but Non-number plate stimuli evoked significantly higher amplitudes, longer latencies of the P300 ERP component with a slower reaction time compared to Number plate stimuli imply the allocation of attentional load was more in Non-number plate processing. Adifferent pattern of asymmetric scalp voltage map was noticed for P300 components with a higher intensity in the left hemisphere for Number plate tasks and higher intensity in the right hemisphere for Non-number plate tasks. Asymmetric cortical activation and connectivity patterns revealed that Number recognition occurred in the occipital and left frontal areas where as the consequence was limited to the occipital area during the Non-number plate processing. Finally, the results displayed that the visual recognition of Numbers dissociates from the recognition of Non-numbers at the level of defined neural networks. Number recognition was not only a process of visual perception and attention, but it was also related to a higher level of cognitive function, that of language.

Retinal and Optic Nerve Degeneration in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis Followed up for 5 Years

To quantify retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) changes in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and healthy controls with a 5-year follow-up and to analyze correlations between disability progression and RNFL degeneration. Observational and longitudinal study. One hundred patients with relapsing-remitting MS and 50 healthy controls. All participants underwent a complete ophthalmic and electrophysiologic exploration and were re-evaluated annually for 5 years. Visual acuity (Snellen chart), color vision (Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates), visual field examination, optical coherence tomography (OCT), scanning laser polarimetry (SLP), and visual evoked potentials. Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS) scores, disease duration, treatments, prior optic neuritis episodes, and quality of life (QOL; based on the 54-item Multiple Sclerosis Quality of Life Scale score). Optical coherence tomography (OCT) revealed changes in all RNFL thicknesses in both groups. In the MS group, changes were detected in average thickness and in the mean deviation using the GDx-VCC nerve fiber analyzer (Laser Diagnostic Technologies, San Diego, CA) and in the P100 latency of visual evoked potentials; no changes were detected in visual acuity, color vision, or visual fields. Optical coherence tomography showed greater differences in the inferior and temporal RNFL thicknesses in both groups. In MS patients only, OCT revealed a moderate correlation between the increase in EDSS and temporal and superior RNFL thinning. Temporal RNFL thinning based on OCT results was correlated moderately with decreased QOL. Multiple sclerosis patients exhibit a progressive axonal loss in the optic nerve fiber layer. Retinal nerve fiber layer thinning based on OCT results is a useful marker for assessing MS progression and correlates with increased disability and reduced QOL.

A New Computerized Test for Colour Deficiency

10% percent of today's population suffers from colour vision deficiency. There are many tests to diagnose colour blindness in related literature. Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates which have almost one-century background are being used widespread to diagnose if a subject is colour blind. In this study, a novel computerized test based on Ishihara tests has been designed. The new test has been applied on 12 individuals having colour deficiency and 50 individuals having normal colour vision. We have achieved 100% sensitivity and 100% specificity from the new test though Ishihara test results.

Are Currently Available Tests Satisfactory for Color Vision Assessment?

PurposeWe aimed to investigate the ophthalmologists’ color vision test usage habits and thoughts on whether it meets the needs of their demands in clinical practice.MethodsA 8‐item questionnaire was applied to ophthalmologists who have interested in color vision tests in daily practice. The questionnaire was applied to the participants through face to face fashion or by mail.ResultsA total of 70 participants (50 male, 20 female) with a mean age of 36.8 years were completed the questionnaire. Mean professional experience of the participants was 9.6 years. Almost all of the participants (97%) were using Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates in daily clinical practice. The Farnsworth‐Munsell 100 hue test was preferred by only 2 (3%) ophthalmologist. However, 84.3% of the participants believe that Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates do not meet their needs at least partially. Seventy four percent of ophthalmologist (n = 52) thought that there is a need for new color vision test providing more detailed data of the subjects.ConclusionsMost of the ophthalmologists still use Ishihara pseudoisochromatic plates for color vision assessment in their routine practice. However, they thought that it does not meet their needs and believe that a new computer based color vision test is essential for the detailed examination of the patients with color vision deficiency.