Irrigation Programs Research Articles

The Response of Braeburn Apple to Regulated Deficit Irrigation

Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) is one of deficit irrigation (DI) techniques and it is developed to minimize irrigation inputs in fruit production, especially in areas where water resources are limited, is recommended for saving irrigation water in agriculture. This study was conducted to determine the effects of deficit irrigation treatments applied in different growth periods on plant water consumption, water yield relations, stomatal conductance and yield of Braeburn apple variety (grafted on M9 rootstock). Experiments were conducted in the years 2010, 2011, and 2012 at Fruit Research Institute, Eğirdir, Isparta, Turkey. Six different irrigation treatments were applied as I1; non-deficit irrigation program, I2; continuous deficit irrigation program (CDI), I3; deficit irrigation program between the 40th and 70th days after full bloom (DAFB), I4; deficit irrigation program between the 70th and 100th DAFB, I5; deficit irrigation program between the 100th and 130th DAFB and I6; deficit irrigation program between the 130th and 160th DAFB. The highest yield (55.2, 54.1 and 63.8 t ha-1 in 2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively) and water use efficiency (WUE) (0.130, 0.129 and 0.137 t ha-1 mm-1 in 2010, 2011 and 2012) values were obtained from I3 treatment in all short-term deficit irrigation treatments. The stomatal conductance values decreased during the short-term deficit irrigation treatments, but the values increased following the deficit irrigation periods. The results revealed that apple trees grafted on M9 rootstock were influenced by short-term water stress, but they were able to cope with stress after the deficit periods. In all deficit irrigation treatments, yield response factor (Ky) ranged from 0.77 to 2.11 Apple tree yield was less sensitive to water deficit in I3 compared to other treatments. Therefore I3 treatment was found to be applicable in case of scarce water resources since it ensured water saving.

Evaluation of Blended Irrigation Schemes: A Micro-Level Decadal Study of Shrigonda Tahsil in Drought Prone Western Maharashtra, India

The qualitative parameters of development of a quantitatively increasing population for a resource stressed country like India, is dependent on the sustainability of food availability. Agriculture remains to be a backbone of the economy and food supply. Agriculture, however, in many parts of India, even today, remains to be rain-fed. Recent efforts at the government level, Centre and State, have helped to bring a significant amount of land, initially under rain-fed agriculture, to under irrigation of various types. These varied types of irrigation change regionally; on various agro-factors. Source of water resources to be used for irrigation in the respective climatic sub-regions and the subsequent crop cultivated in the respective region are just a few primary factors controlling the effectivity of the type of irrigation method used. Irrigation requires technological inputs, which, in turn, requires financial expenses that need to be under the significant agro-factors mentioned above. Governments at the Centre and State levels; have been continuously making efforts to support irrigation practices through direct and indirect supportive schemes. These schemes have their positive, and at times, negative impact on the local agriculture at a micro-level. Agriculture is a state subject in India. The Centre does provide finance for various agricultural projects as well. Micro-irrigation has been and will play an essential role in the future in India. Ever since 1992, the government has been taking initiatives in micro-irrigation. These have eventually transpired into schemes, i.e., Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) in 2006, later upgraded to the National Mission on Micro Irrigation (NMMI) implemented since 2013-14 and subsequently National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture. The present study is an attempt to evaluate such 'State' (Central and State Governments)sponsored irrigation programs on agricultural practices at a micro level, over a decade (2005-2016). The study area identified for the same is a tahsil in the Ahmednagar district of Western Maharashtra. What is significant is that, the said tahsil Shrigonda; lies in the drought-prone region and that there have been cyclic variations in the rainfall, and the various agriculture crops cultivated through the last decade. State Government-sponsored schemes are seen to have been blended with Central Government schemes by the local farmers to achieve sustainability of crops. The effects of the same, on the cycle of products, is worth an observation.Human factors also play an equally important role while using the developing Technology of micro-irrigation. Farmers try-and-test various crops with the respective Micro-irrigation technique, in the respective agro-climatic regions, particularly when the source of water is not assured in the drought-prone area. Subsequent allied government schemes (farm ponds), the market value of the product, and perishability or shelf-life of the products also play a significant role in the choice of crop. The success of the micro-irrigation schemes will, however, be dependent on the effective delivery mechanism through close coordination among all the tiers of government and capacity building of beneficiaries.

ET Gauge ve A Sınıfı Buharlaşma Kap Ölçümlerinin Karşılaştırılması

Sulama suyu miktarının bilinmesi, sulama programlarının oluşturulması, sulama sistemlerinin planlanması ve projelendirilmesi başta olmak üzere birçok alanda hayati öneme sahip bir bilgidir. Sulama suyu miktarının belirlenmesinde çok sayıda yöntem bulunmaktadır. Bu yöntemler arasında en basit ve kullanışlı olanların başında, A sınıfı buharlaşma kabı (Apan) gelmektedir. Son yıllarda çok sayıda yöntem ve teknolojik alet/ekipman geliştirilmiş olmasının yanında yenileri de zaman içerisinde eklenmektedir. Son birkaç on yıllık dönemde kullanımı giderek artan ekipmanların başında ET Gauge ekipmanı gelmektedir. Yapılan bu çalışmada, ET Gauge ekipmanından elde edilen değerler ile A sınıfı buharlaşma kabından olan buharlaşma değerleri karşılaştırılmıştır. Ölçüm yapılan 5 aylık dönemde ET Gauge okumalarının ortalaması 4.7 mm/gün, A sınıfı buharlaşma kabından olan buharlaşmanın (Apan) ortalaması 7.2 mm/gün ve düzeltilmiş Apan’ın ortalama değeri 5 mm/gün olarak hesaplanmıştır. Ayrıca, ölçümlerin standart sapmaları ise ET Gauge 2.803, Apan’ın 3.787 ve düzeltilmiş Apan’ın ise 2.651 olarak hesaplanmıştır. ET Gauge ile Apan okumaları arasındaki korelasyon pozitif yönlü olup katsayısı 0.825’dir. Ayrıca, iki parametrenin arasındaki kuvvetli bir ilişki ortaya koymakta olup regresyon katsayısı (R2) ise 0.9991 olarak belirlenmiştir. Yapılan analiz ve değerlendirmeler sonucunda ET Gauge ekipmanı, sulama programlamalarında pratik olarak rahatlıkla kullanılabileceği belirlenmiştir.

Effects of mycorrhiza and irrigation programs on strawberry production in substrate culture

Effects of mycorrhiza and irrigation programs on strawberry production in substrate culture

Kısıntılı Sulamanın Greyfurt Bahçesinde Su Kullanımı, Verim, Verim Öğeleri ve Meyve Niteliğine Etkisi

Araştırma, Çukurova Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Araştırma ve Uygulama Çiftliğinde bulunan Rio Red altıntop ağaçları kullanılarak 2011 ve 2012 yıllarında yürütülmüştür. Çalışmada, deneme bahçesindeki mevcut sulama proğramının değerlendirilmesi ile ağaçlara farklı düzeylerde uygulanan sulama suyu miktarının, verim ile meyve kalite özellikleri (pomoloji) üzerine etkilerinin belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Denemede damla sulama sistemi ile 3 farklı miktarda sulama suyu uygulanmıştır (I100); (I70); (I50). Her iki yıl dikkate alındığında sulama suyu miktarları, 332,48 mm (I100) ile 128,69 mm (I50) arasında değişmiştir. Gerçek bitki su tüketimleri ise su bütçesi yöntemine göre 935,6 mm (I100) ile 729,9 mm (I50) arasında gerçekleşmiştir. Denemenin birinci yılında, sulama konularına ilişkin verimler, ağaç başına, 306 (I70) ile 330 (I50) kg, ikinci yıl ise ağaç başına ortalama verim değerlerinin sulama konularına göre, 59,6 kg (I100) ile 108,5 kg (I50) arasında değişmiştir. Toplam su kullanma randımanları, 2011 yılında, WUEET 5,18 kg m-3ile 6,34 kg m-3, 2012 yılında ise; 0,52 kg m-3ile 1,74 kg m-3arasında elde edilmiştir. Sulama suyu kullanma randımanları, 2011 yılında, WUEI 15,85 kg m-3ile 30,69 kg m-3, 2012 yılında ise; 2,17 kg m-3ile 14,27 kg m-3değerleriarasında değişmiştir. Denemenin birinci yılında ortalama suda çözünen kuru madde miktarları, %10,22 (I100) ile %12,91 (I50) arasında; ikinci yılında ise %12,41 (I100) ile %13,47 (I50) arasında değişmiştir. Bu çalışma kapsamında sulama konularının meyve verimine etkilerinin istatistiksel olarak önemli olmamasından dolayı çifçilere su tasarrufu sağlamak amacıyla yöre için su kısıntısı önerilebilir.

Assessing the Use of Smartphones to Determine Crop Ripeness

Farmers do not typically have ready access to sophisticated color measurement equipment. The idea that farmers could use their smartphones to determine when and if crops are ready for harvest was the driving force behind this project. If famers could use their smartphones to image their crops, in this case tomatoes, to determine their ripeness and readiness for harvest their farming practices could be simplified. Five smartphone devices were used to image tomatoes at different stages of ripeness. A relationship was found to exist between the hue angles taken from the smartphone images and as measured by a spectroradiometer. Additionally, a tomato color checker was created using the spectroradiometer measurements. It is intended to be made of a material that makes it easy to transport into the field. The chart is intended for use in camera calibration for future imaging. Different cloth materials were tested, with the eventual choice being a canvas material with black felt backing. Other possibilities are being investigated. The results from the smartphones and the charts will be used in further research on the application of color science in agriculture. Other possible future applications include monitoring progress relative to irrigation and fertilization programs and detection of pests and disease.

A Non-Uniform Broadcast Fertilization Method and Its Performance Analysis under Basin Irrigation

The broadcast fertilization method is widely used under basin irrigation in China. A reasonable broadcast fertilization method can effectively improve application performance of fertilization and reduce pollution from non-point agricultural sources. In this study, firstly, a non-uniform broadcast fertilization method and a non-uniform application coefficient were proposed. The value of non-uniform application coefficient is defined in this paper. It represents the ratio of the difference between the maximum and the average fertilization amount of fertilizer applied on the basin surface to the average fertilization amount of fertilizer applied on the basin surface. Secondly, field experiments were conducted to study the movement characteristics of fertilizer under non-uniform broadcast fertilization for basin irrigation. Field experiment results showed that under the condition of basin irrigation, the non-uniform broadcast fertilization method could weaken the non-uniform distribution of fertilizer due to erosion and transport capacity of solid fertilizer by irrigation water flow, which could significantly improve the uniformity of soil solute content. Thirdly, the solute transport model for broadcast fertilization was corroborated by the field experiment results. The variation rule of fertilization performance with non-uniform application coefficient under different basin length and inflow rate was achieved by simulation. The simulation results showed that fertilization uniformity and fertilization storage efficiency increased first and then decreased with the increase of non-uniform application coefficient. In order to be practically applicable, suitable irrigation programs of non-uniform application coefficient under different basin length and inflow rate conditions were proposed by numerical simulation.

Modern Farming Kick-Starts Large Landslides in Peruvian Deserts

Large-scale irrigation programs have triggered giant, slow-moving landslides in arid valleys, leading to the destruction of both traditional and modern farmland.

Sub-Surface Drip Irrigation in Associated with H2O2 Improved the Productivity of Maize under Clay-Rich Soil of Adana, Turkey

Maize being sub-tropical crop is sensitive to water deficit during the early growth stages; particularly clay-rich soil, due to the compaction of the soil. It is well-documented that potential sub-surface drip irrigation (SDI) (Full irrigation; SDIFull (100% field capacity (FC)), Deficit irrigation; SDIDeficit (70% FC)) improves water use efficiency, which leads to increased crop productivity; since it has a constraint that SDI excludes soil air around the root-zone during irrigation events, which alter the root function and crop performance. Additionally, in clayrich soils, the root system of plants generally suffers the limitation of oxygen, particularly the temporal hypoxia, and occasionally from root anoxia; while SDI system accomplishes with the aerating stream of irrigation in the rhizosphere could provide oxygen root environment. The oxygen can be introduced into the irrigation stream of SDI through two ways: the venturi principle, or by using solutions of hydrogen peroxide through the air injection system. Therefore, the application of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂; HP) can mitigate the adverse effect of soil compactness and also lead to improving the growth, yield and yield attributes of maize in clay-rich soil. Considering the burning issue, a field study was conducted in consecutive two seasons of 2017 and 2018; where hybrid maize was cultivated as a second crop, to evaluate the effect of liquid-injection of H₂O₂ (HP) into the irrigation stream of SDI on the performance of maize in a clay-rich soil field of Adana, Turkey. When soil water content decreased in 50% of available water, irrigation was performed. The amount of water applied to reach the soil water content to the field capacity is SDIFull (100% FC) and 70% FC of this water is SDIDeficit (70% FC). In the irrigation program, hydrogen peroxide (HP) was applied at intervals of 7 days on average according to available water with and without HP: SDIFull (100% FC) + 0 ppm HP with full SDI irrigation; SDIFull (100% FC) + 250 ppm HP with deficit SDI irrigation; SDIDeficit (70% FC) + 0 ppm HP, SDIDeficit (70% FC) + 250 ppm HP and SDIDeficit (70% FC) + 500 ppm HP. Deficit irrigation (SDIDeficit (70% FC)) program was started from tasseling stage and continued up to the physiological maturity stage with sub-soil drip irrigation. H₂O₂ was applied 3 times during the growing season. Two years’ results revealed that the liquid-injection of H₂O₂ into the irrigation stream of SDI improved the growth and yield-related attributes and grain yield of maize. Based on the obtained results, during the extreme climatic condition in the year 2017, SDIFull (100% FC) + 250 ppm HP was more effective than SDIFull (100% FC) + 0 ppm HP on all traits for relative to full irrigation. While, during the favourable climatic condition in the 2018 season, SDIFull (100% FC) + 250 ppm HP was more effective than full irrigation with SDIFull (100% FC) + 0 ppm HP for the grain yield, grains, and SPAD value. Accordingly, the most effective treatment was SDIFull (100% FC) + 250 ppm HP, as it gave the highest growth and yield-related attributes and grain yield of maize followed by SDIDeficit (70% FC) + 250 ppm HP. Therefore, SDIFull with 250 ppm H₂O₂ using as liquid-injection may be recommended to mitigate the adverse effect of soil compactness particularly water-deficit stress in clay-rich soil for the sustainability of maize production.

Improving irrigation efficiency and conservation using modern irrigation programs in Saudi Arabia

Improving irrigation efficiency and conservation using modern irrigation programs in Saudi Arabia

Yüzeyaltı Damla Sulama Yöntemiyle Sulanan Yalova İncisi Sofralık Üzüm Çeşidinde Yaprak Su Potansiyeline Göre Sulama Programının Oluşturulması

This research was carried out in the Eastern Mediterranean Region of Turkey where to determine the effects of various irrigation strategies applied with subsurface drip systems on Yalova Incisi table grape variety and yield and water use efficiency along with optimal irrigation program during 2016, in the experimental fields of Alata Horticultural Research Station, Tarsus Soil and Water Resources Topcu Unit. In the study six irrigation levels (Full irrigation, TS; deficit irrigation, KS75; deficit irrigation, KS50; Partial Root-Zone Drying PRD75% , Partial Root-Zone Drying PRD50% of full irrigation treatments and Rainfed, RF) were tested. Soil water deficit in the rootzone depth was replenished to field capacity in irrigations. The experimental was carried out in randomized block design with three replications. The effect of the irrigation levels on the yield were found statistically significant. Full irrigation treatment under the produced the highest yield (30.9 t ha-1), the lowest yield was obtained in rainfed treatment plots (11.7 t ha-1). Leaf water potantial were measured throughout the growing season with a pressure chamber. The YSP values decreased with increasing water stress. Highest yields of Yalova Incisi variety can be obtained when irrigated at leaf water potential value Ψ =0.92 MPa.

Irrigation-triggered landslides in a Peruvian desert caused by modern intensive farming

Intensification of agriculture leads to stress on the environment and subsequently can have strong societal and ecological impacts. In deserts, areas of very high sensitivity to land-use changes, these local-scale impacts are not well documented. On the arid southwestern coast of Peru, several vast irrigation programmes were developed in the 1950s on the flat detritic plateau surrounding narrow valleys to supply new farming areas. We document the long-term effects of irrigation on the erosion of arid deserts in the Vitor and Siguas valleys, south Peru, using 40 yr of satellite data. We demonstrate that irrigation initiated very large slow-moving landslides, affecting one-third of the valleys. Their kinematics present periods of quiescence and short periods of rapid activity, corresponding to landslide destabilization by their headscarp retrogression. This analysis suggests that the landslide motion continues long after their initiation by irrigations. Those landslides affect the fertile valley floors, leading to the destruction of villages and agricultural areas. We conclude that modern intensive farming can strongly impact traditional agriculture in desert areas where water management is particularly critical. Slow-moving landslides in two valleys in Peru were initiated by irrigation programmes in the region, suggest analyses of 40 years of satellite data.

EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF DEFICIT IRRIGATION ON WATER USE EFFICIENCY AND CUCUMBER GROWTH UNDER GREENHOUSE MANAGEMENT, NIGERIA

Water use efficiency (WUE) increment and reduction in amount of irrigation are important role played by deficit irrigation. Deficit irrigation is a well-accepted practice to optimize increase water use, thereby saving cost, by allowing crops to withstand mild water stress with no or only marginal decreases in yield and quality. Greenhouse experiments were conducted using a deficit irrigation program on cucumber crops under drip irrigation during 2018–2019 growing season, to determine the crop water requirements in greenhouse and WUE of cucumber crop using a deficit irrigation program at different stages of growth. Irrigation treatments consisted of 12 levels of ETc (20%-100%), deficit irrigation tested at different growth stages (initial, mid and late stage of growth) for a total of 12 treatments at each experiment. The maximum amount of water applied to the crop was 455 mm for the 20% ETc treatment while the minimum water applied was 247 mm for 100% ETc treatment. The ETc ranges between 223 and 407 mm for the different treatments. The results indicated that, cucumber could stand a shortage of water during the growth and water use efficiency (WUE) and water productivity (WP) values increased when water amounts decreased; these values decreased to 45.6 and 24 kg/m3, respectively. Water resource management under water scarcity bring about different policies aim at reducing the non-beneficial water uses, particularly those corresponding to water consumption and to the non-reusable fraction of the diverted water.

Estimation of maize evapotraspiration under drought stress - A case study of Huaibei Plain, China.

Given the importance and complexity of crop evapotranspiration estimation under drought stress, an experiment tailored for maize under drought stress was completed using six sets of large-scale weighing lysimeters at the Xinmaqiao Comprehensive Experimental Irrigation and Drainage Station, Anhui Province, China. Our aim was to analyze maize evapotranspiration under different drought conditions. Based on estimates of maize evapotranspiration under no drought stress using the dual crop coefficient approach, we optimized and calibrated basic crop coefficients Kcbini, Kcbmid, Kcbend, and the maximum crop coefficient Kcmax using a genetic algorithm. Measurements of solar radiation at the experimental station were used to derive the empirical parameters a and b from the Angstrom formula through the genetic algorithm, and then evapotranspiration was calculated for the reference crop (ET0). We then estimated the maize evapotranspiration under drought using the dual crop coefficient approach. The results indicated that a slight water deficit during the earlier stage of vegetative growth may stimulate the maize homeostatic mechanism and increase tolerance to drought stress in later growth periods. Maize evapotranspiration significantly decreased if drought stress continued into the elongation stage, and the same degree of drought stress had a greater influence on the middle and later stages of vegetative and reproductive growth. The calibrated results for Kcbini, Kcbmid, Kcbend, and Kcmax were 0.155, 1.218, 0.420 and 1.497 respectively. We calculated the root-mean-square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and mean relative error (MRE) of maize evapotranspiration under no drought stress over the full growing season using a dual crop coefficient approach, and the results were 1.33 mm/day, 0.99 mm/day, and 1.30%, respectively, or 18.40%, 17.50%, and 91.11% lower than results using the recommended coefficients. The RMSE, MAE, and MRE results for maize under drought stress during two full growth periods were 1.18 mm/day, 0.98 mm/day, and 13.92%, respectively. These results were higher than maize without drought stress, but better than the estimated results based on FAO-56 recommended values. Therefore, maize evapotranspiration estimation under drought stress using the dual crop coefficient approach and genetic algorithm was reasonable and reliable. This study provides a theoretical basis for developing suitable regional irrigation programs and decreasing losses due to agricultural drought.

Effects of different irrigation interval and plant-pan coefficient applications on yield and quality parameters of oil sunflower grown in semi-arid climatic conditions

Sustainability of plant production activities and improvement of irrigated lands in arid and semi-arid regions totally depend on efficient use of available water resources. Such an efficient use of water resources can be provided through assessment of water–yield relationships and identification of proper irrigation programs, schedules, and operational principles. There are no studies carried out to determine water–yield relations of oleic-type sunflower plants grown over large areas in Konya plain. In this study, different irrigation intervals (S) and crop-pan coefficients (Kcp) were used in drip irrigation of sunflower plants in Konya which is located at the Middle Anatolia in Turkey. The primary objective was to determine the effects of irrigation levels and intervals on yield and quality parameters of sunflower plants. Experiments were conducted in 2013–2014 growing seasons in 3 × 5 factorial design with 4 replications. Three different irrigation intervals (S5:5, S10:10, and S15:15-day) and five different crop-pan coefficients (Kcp1.25:125% of pan evaporation, Kcp1.00:100% of pan evaporation, Kcp0.75:75% of pan evaporation, Kcp0.50:50% of pan evaporation, and Kcp0.00:rain-fed without irrigation) were used in this study. In an average of 2 years, the greatest seed yield (5481 kg/ha) was obtained from S10Kcp1.25 with the greatest water consumption (748.7 mm). As compared with S10Kcp1.25 treatment, about 25% decrease was observed in yield of Kcp0.75 treatments irrigated at 5- and 10-day intervals. Such a decrease was identified as 15% in Kcp1.00 treatments irrigated at 15-day intervals. Therefore, for optimum seed yields from sunflower plants grown in Konya plain, irrigation intervals should not exceed 10 days. Also, crop-pan coefficient should be taken as 1.00 for high seed yields. Again, in an average of 2 years, irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) of the treatments varied between 0.70 and 3.70 kg/m3 and water use efficiency (WUE) values varied between 0.53 and 0.75 kg/m3. The average yield response factor (ky) was identified as 1.14. Since the value is greater than 1, it was concluded that sunflower plants were sensitive to water deficits under Konya conditions.

GoRoSoBo simplified: an accurate feedback control algorithm in real time for irrigation canals

AbstractAn irrigation canal is a hydraulic system whose main objective is to convey water from a source (dam, river) to different users. Such systems can be very large (several tens or hundreds of kilometers), characterized by time delays and non-linear dynamics, strong unknown perturbations and interactions among subsystems. In order to fulfill the requirements of canal users, the water manager must control all water deliveries during the irrigation cycle (or irrigation program) calculating the gate positions of the canal according to the water demands in real time. Initially, our overall control diagram in real time is mainly represented by two algorithms, the canal survey estimation algorithm (this algorithm estimates the water level and velocity along the irrigation canal during a past time horizon) and GoRoSoBo algorithm (feedback control algorithm operating in real time). Regarding long canals with several gates and pumps operating in a short period of time for a long predictive horizon, the initial version of GoRoSoBo algorithms would spend too much time calculating the canal gate position in real time. This is the reason why we have upgraded the code of the GoRoSoBo algorithm, saving in computational time around 85%, in order to operate in real time.

Sulama Otomasyonu Sistemlerinin Tasarımında Kullanılabilecek İş Akış Şemalarının Oluşturulması

Otomasyon, insan müdahalesine ihtiyaç duyulmadan çeşitli cihaz, sistem ve programların işletilmesini sağlayan mekanik, elektronik ve bilgisayar tabanlı bir teknolojidir. Sulama otomasyonu sistemi; çevre, su kaynakları ve üretim maliyeti dikkate alınarak daha az insan gücü, daha kontrollü ve daha kaliteli tarımsal üretim ile planlanmalıdır. Sulama programını sera, tarla ve bahçe bitkileri yetiştiriciliğinde uygulama becerisine sahip olmalıdır. Sulama otomasyonu sistemi bazı işlem basamakları takip edilerek oluşturulmaktadır. Bunlar; sulama programının hazırlanması, sistem bileşenlerinin seçilmesi, projenin hazırlanması, yazılımın hazırlanarak test edilmesi ve sistemin kurulmasıdır. Bu aşamalardan geçirilen sulama otomasyon sistemi, sulama suyunun etkin kullanımını sağlar, işçiliği azaltır, sulama programını izler ve üretim maliyetlerini azaltır. Bu çalışmada, bitki su tüketimine ve bitki kök bölgesindeki nem düzeyine duyarlı sulama otomasyonu sistemlerinin tasarımına yardımcı olabilecek iş akış şemaları oluşturulmuştur.

The impact of a Solar Market Garden programme on dietary diversity, women's nutritional status and micronutrient levels in Kalalé district of northern Benin.

To examine the impacts of a Solar Market Garden 1-year solar-powered drip irrigation (SMG) programme in Kalalé district of northern Benin on mothers' nutritional status and micronutrient levels. Using a quasi-experimental design, sixteen villages were assigned to four groups: (i) SMG women's groups (WG); (ii) comparison WG; (iii) SMG non-WG (NWG); and (iv) comparison NWG. Difference-in-differences (DID) estimates were used to assess impacts on mothers' food consumption, diversity, BMI, prevalence of underweight (BMI < 18·5 kg/m2) and anaemia, and deficiencies of iron (ID) and vitamin A (VAD). Kalalé district, northern Benin. Non-pregnant mothers aged 15-49 years (n 1737). The SMG programme significantly increased mothers' intake of vegetables (DID = 25·31 percentage points (pp); P < 0·01), dietary diversity (DID = 0·74; P < 0·01) and marginally increased their intake of flesh foods (DID = 10·14 pp; P < 0·1). Mean BMI was significantly increased among SMG WG compared with the other three groups (DID = 0·44 kg/m2; P < 0·05). The SMG programme also significantly decreased the prevalence of anaemia (DID = 12·86 pp; P < 0·01) but no impacts were found for the prevalence of underweight, ID and VAD. Improving mothers' dietary intake and anaemia prevalence supports the need to integrate gender-based agriculture to improve nutritional status. However, it may take more than a year, and additional nutrition and health programmes, to impact the prevalence of maternal underweight, ID and VAD.

Development of a Hydrologic and Water Allocation Model to Assess Water Availability in the Sabor River Basin (Portugal).

The Sabor River basin is a large basin (3170 km2) located in the northeast of Portugal and used mostly for agroforestry. One problem this basin faces is a lack of water during the dry season, when there is a higher demand for water to irrigate crops. To solve this problem, the Portuguese government created a National Irrigation Program to finance new irrigation areas and improve existing ones. Consequently, it is necessary to evaluate the past and future water availability for agricultural and domestic consumption in the basin. This was done through the development of a hydrological and water allocation model. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was used to model the hydrological processes that took place in the catchment between 1960 and 2008. The MIKE HYDRO Basin was used to simulate water allocation (irrigation and domestic consumption) in a historical view and under two scenarios. The historical view used the time period 1960–2008, and the two scenarios used the same time period but with an increase in the irrigated area. The first scenario simulated the irrigation of the total irrigable area that exists in the basin. The second scenario simulated a 29% increase in the olive grove area and a 24% decrease in the resident population, according to the projection for 2060. The results show that, in the historical view, the average annual water demand deficit was 31% for domestic consumption and 70% for irrigation, which represent 1372 × 103 m3 and 94 × 106 m3 of water, respectively. In the two scenarios, the water demand deficit increased to 37% for domestic consumption and 77% for irrigation. In the first scenario, the average annual water demand deficit was 183 × 106 m3 of water for irrigation. In the second scenario, the average annual water demand deficit was 385 × 103 m3 of water for domestic consumption, and 106 × 106 m3 of water for irrigating the expanded olive grove area. These results demonstrate that Portuguese farmers can use our model as a decision support tool to determine how much water needs to be stored to meet the present and future water demand.

Mathematical Modelling of Crop Water Productivity for Processing Tomato

Crop water productivity models (CWPMs) are of great importance in evaluating different irrigation programs. The mean goal of the study was to evaluate the performance of the Jensen, Minhas, Blank, Stewart and Rao CWPMs in predicting fruit yield of processing tomato. Field experiments were conducted for two consecutive growing seasons. The soil water stress sensitivity indices of the CWPMs were determined using experimental data from the second crop growing season. Yields simulated by the CWPMs were compared with the experimental data for the first season. The sensitivity indices for the crop growth stages were taken into account as appropriate weights of the soil water sensitivity of the vegetative, flowering, yield formation and ripening stages of the processing tomato crop. The results give evidence that processing tomato is much more sensitive to soil water stress during flowering and yield formation stages whereas the adverse impact of water stress on yield is very limited at vegetative stage. The highest modelling efficiency (0.96) between field-measured and simulated yield by the model, the lowest arithmetic mean of errors (0.04), mean absolute deviation (0.07), mean square error (0.02), absolute percentage error (12.76), root mean square error (0.15) and coefficient of residual mass (0.05) were achieved by Minhas model and followed by Rao model based on same parameters of statistical analyses. Both the Minhas and the Rao models with their soil water stress sensitivity indices generated for the different growth stages obtained in this study are recommended for the processing tomato in the sub-humid environments.