Irrigation Modernization Research Articles

Gasto público en educación e investigación agrícola de México (1995-2010)

El gasto público federal de fomento al sector agrícola en México a mediados del siglo pasado se caracterizó por una alta intervención pública en infraestructura de riego y modernización del campo mexicano. En contraste, a finales del siglo pasado, las transferencias públicas se destinaron principalmente al apoyo del ingreso de los productores agrícolas. Por ello, el presente trabajo evalúa la incidencia del gasto público agrícola federal de México y sus componentes de investigación y educación, en el crecimiento agrícola durante 1995-2010. El análisis del Índice de Orientación Agrícola reveló que el sector público dio mayor relevancia a las transferencias públicas de otros sectores que a la agricultura. Además, se observó una tendencia descendente en la participación del sector agrícola en la economía en conjunto. Se encontró que las transferencias públicas destinadas al fomento de la agricultura regresan al sector, incrementado seis veces más en un periodo de un año; en tanto que el gasto en educación y ciencia agrícola retornaron cien veces más, en un lapso de cuatro años. Se recomienda destinar mayores recursos a programas de fomento a la educación e investigación agrícola, fortaleciendo las cadenas productivas e impulsando la competitividad y el desarrollo agroalimentario.

Investment profitability and economic efficiency of the drip irrigation system: Evidence from Egypt*

AbstractModern irrigation systems are key to improving the productivity of water and land units. This study assesses the economic aspects of the drip irrigation system (DIS) by calculating the investment profitability and economic efficiency of the DIS for growing tomatoes in Egypt. One hundred tomato farmers were surveyed. Financial discounted criteria were used in addition to data envelopment analysis to estimate the economic efficiency of growing tomatoes using the DIS. The results showed that investment in the DIS is lucrative, with an increase of 67% in the net return per hectare, compared with results using non‐drip irrigation. The benefit–cost ratio amounted to 1.35, the net present value was US$1720, and the internal rate of return was 44%. The data envelopment analysis results revealed that most farms achieved technical and allocative efficiencies; however, cost and scale efficiencies still need improvement. These results could guide policymakers when designing irrigation transformation strategies that involve the use of micro‐credit to encourage small farmers to change from conventional irrigation systems to DISs. Agricultural extension agencies should organize intensive training programmes for small farmers on how to operate and maintain the DIS. These policies will accelerate the adoption of irrigation modernization and help vulnerable farmers maximize productivity and achieve sustainability in the use of limited resources.

Overall introduction to irrigation and drainage development and modernization in China*

AbstractDuring the last 70 years the development of irrigation schemes has made great progress in China. The total irrigated area has been developed from 15.9 million ha in 1949 to 68.3 million ha in 2018, and the irrigated area contributes 75% of the total grain production and 90% of cash crop production. Technical research and application have contributed significantly to the development of irrigation schemes in China. This paper introduces the irrigation and drainage developments, and technical research and application on water resource projects and conjunctive use water resources, canal systems, low‐pressure pipeline and on‐farm irrigation techniques, drainage techniques, information technology, reform of management mechanisms and standards for design and construction. This paper also introduces the planning for modernization of irrigation schemes in China. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Improvement And Modernization of Agricultural Irrigation. Uzbekistan Case Study

This paper analyzes the history and present of irrigation in agriculture in Uzbekistan to set future goals. The changes produced in the economic and political reality in Central Asia in this past century are of great importance for water management in the Aral Sea basin. This framework also considers the relationships between countries that share water resources. Changes in the market economy, the need to diversify the Uzbek economy, and the need to produce food make inevitable changes in water management. It is essential to address the modernization and improvement of the irrigation systems of Uzbekistan.

A methodology to classify irrigated areas: Application to the central Ebro River Basin in Aragón (Spain)

The large diversity of irrigated agricultural areas hinders the development of social consensus and complicates decision-making about the allocation of investments for irrigation modernization. A classification of irrigated areas permits the identification and mapping of different categories and reveals the strengths and weaknesses of each category regarding specific criteria. This paper proposes a binomial (genus and species) classification methodology of irrigated areas, which was designed based on a participatory approach. Four internal properties determine the genus: type of water source, type of water energy, on-farm irrigation method and water availability. Four external properties classify the variability within each genus into species: land tenure, crop type, existence of an environmental protection figure and socio-economic level. The words used for the genus and specific name arise from the concatenation of syllables representing the state or level of each property. The method was applied to the irrigated area of the Ebro river basin in the Aragón region of Spain (ERB-Aragón). A total of 435,851 ha were classified. A large part of the irrigated land uses surface water (94 %), does not have water availability problems (80 %), is not affected by environmental protection figures (97 %), is devoted to field crops (86 %), and manifests a low (45 %) or moderate (41 %) socio-economic level. A total of 24 genera and 126 species were identified. The two most representative genera are SurGraFloVe (31 %) and SurPumPreVe (27 %), and the two main species are SurGraFloVe DisCeNoLo (19 %) and SurPumPreVe ConCeNoMo (19 %). These species received the local names of “Ribera del Ebro” and “Alto Aragonés” to facilitate policy discussions. The application of the method to the ERB-Aragón provides a privileged insight that can support policy analyses and guide institutional intervention. The proposed methodology can be adapted to other areas of the world by adjusting criteria and categories to local conditions.

Problems and main areas of irrigation and drainage development in Ukraine in a changing climate

Climate change has caused rapid soil dehydration in Ukraine; therefore sustainable agriculture will only be possible applying throughout irrigation or water regulation. Meanwhile, the use of the irrigation and drainage systems potential remains extremely unsatisfactory. In 2019, 532,000 ha were actually irrigated, and water regulation was performed on less than 300,000 ha. The purpose of the research. To analyze the existing state and substantiate the areas of the irrigation and drainage sector development to ensure the sustainable agriculture in the face of a changing climate. Materials and methods of the research. In the work, a set of methods was used: analytical, expert evaluations, surveys, comparisons and analogues, experimental. Observation data from the state meteorological stations network were used to evaluate hydrothermal conditions and the data from the network of hydrological posts of Ukrhydrometcentre were used to evaluate the river condition. To assess the technical condition of the engineering infrastructure, methodological approaches were used in accordance with the requirements of the international and European standards and the normative documents currently in force in Ukraine. To identify the possible ways and mechanisms to restore the irrigation and drainage systems potential, the reasons of the existing state were analyzed and it was determined that the uncompleted land and economic reforms, imperfections in the existing legislation and state support mechanisms, especially in the sector management, caused the long-year underfunding of irrigation and drainage facilities operation and restoration and resulted in the crisis situation in the sector. Conclusions. Based on the study of the world experience and the carried out research, it was established that the restoration and development of irrigation and drainage in Ukraine are possible only along with the implementation of a legal and institutional reform to introduce decentralization, improvement of the existing legislation, modernization of irrigation and drainage systems through the development and implementation of investment projects for restoration and development of irrigation and drainage systems, creation of attractive investment environments, development and introduction of a financing mechanism to cover management, operation and maintenance costs based on a new tariff formation system, introduction of the scientific support and staffing system for the land reclamation sector. The basis for the deployment of irrigation and drainage restoration should be the "Irrigation and Drainage Strategy in Ukraine until 2030", and the appropriate plan of measures, formed on the basis of fundamentally new institutional, scientific, technical and technological, economic, organizational, social and environmental approaches, should become a tool for achieving the goals of the "Strategy ...". Successful implementation of the goals of irrigation and drainage restoration in Ukraine will create the conditions to sustainable and profitable agricultural production in the face of climate change, to restore irrigation on the area of about 1,0 to 1,2 mln. ha and drainage on the area of 1,0 mln. ha and to additionally get up to 10 mln. tons of grain, 8-10 mln. tons of fruit, berries and vegetables annually.

A study on improvement needs for the soil water balance

One critical problem confronting mankind today is how to manage the intensifying competition for water among expanding urban centres, traditional agricultural activities and in-stream water uses dictated by environmental concerns based solely on the soil water balance. In the agricultural sector, the prospects of increasing the gross cultivated area are limited by the dwindling number of economically attractive sites for large-scale irrigation and drainage systems whose correct evaluation depends on the understanding of groundwater movement in three dimensions. The failure of present systems, and inability of sustainable extraction from surface and groundwater sources may be attributed, essentially, to poor planning, design, management and development, as not much is known about groundwater flow systems. Each flow system has different chemical quality, path of travel, recharge area, as well as water age. To take full advantage of investment in agriculture, a major effort is required to modernize irrigation and drainage systems and to further develop appropriate management strategies compatible with financial and socio-economic trends, considering the functioning of groundwater components in the environment. This calls for a holistic approach to irrigation, drainage management, and monitoring if the aim is to increase food production, conserve water, prevent soil salinization and water logging, and to protect the environment. Sustainable development should be based on a full understanding of the relationship between the used water source and the environment. To tackle this challenge, there is a need to focus on the following issues: affordability with respect to the application of new technologies; procedures for integrated planning and management of irrigation and drainage systems; analysis to identify causes and effects constraining irrigation and drainage system performance; evapotranspiration and related calculation methods; estimation of crop water requirements; technologies for the design, construction, and modernization of irrigation and drainage systems; strategies to improve irrigation and drainage system efficiency; environmental impacts of irrigation and drainage systems and suitable measures for creating and maintaining sustainability. Institutional strengthening, proper financial assessment, capacity building, training and education actions are also required to achieve a successful on the soil water balance.

State Engagement with Farmer-led Irrigation Development: Symbolic Irrigation Modernisation and Disturbed Development Trajectories in Tanzania

Farmer-led irrigation development, a process in which farmers initiate the establishment of irrigation, is increasingly recognised as the driving force behind irrigation expansion, agricultural intensification, and commercialisation in sub-Saharan Africa. Governments and development agencies aim to build upon these practices to further stimulate agricultural production and expand the irrigated area. In what seems the recognition of farmers’ ability to take the lead, various African states have developed policies for ‘demand-driven irrigation development’. This article scrutinises the actual practices of such a policy through a case analysis of an intervention in Northern Tanzania. The analysis demonstrates how even demand-driven policies can disturb the development trajectory of farmer-led irrigation development by reinforcing modernisation ideals adhered to by both farmers and government employees. An emphasis on the aesthetics of modernity leads to symbolic modernisation, cementing the dominant role of the state and formal expertise and paralysing farmers’ irrigation development initiatives. This does not necessarily lead to agricultural intensification and commercialisation, which the formal policies seem to aim for and which is central to processes of farmer-led irrigation development.

CHINA'S PLANS AND ACTION ON IMPLEMENTATION OF ICID VISION 2030†

AbstractWe are living in a changing world. The sustainable development goals (SDGs) launched by the United Nations highlight that water is closely linked to a number of key global challenges. Agricultural water management is vital to food security and sustainable rural development. The International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) has realigned its vision and dedicated itself to a mission to support sustainable rural development by formulating and implementing the vision of ICID for 2030. As a member country of ICID, China, with the largest population and agricultural production, puts great importance on improving agricultural water management for achieving food security under water shortage and a growing demand for agricultural production. China has been working at two levels to enhance agricultural water management. At on‐farm level China has worked out plans for developing high‐standard farmland by highlighting integrated water and land management; at system level China is working on plans for the modernization of irrigation and drainage systems by upgrading systems and applying information (IT) and automation technologies. This paper summarizes the objectives, tasks and measures for developing high‐standard farmland in China. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Assessment of Factors Constraining Organic Farming Expansion in Lis Valley, Portugal

Organic farming can play an important role in rural development and food production, by reinforcing the trend toward sustainable agriculture and its purpose of ecosystem conservation. The agribusiness of organic farming is particularly relevant in family farming, given the labor availability and the short marketing circuits. The innovative techniques of organic farming, namely with soil fertility, weed and pest control, opens a wide range of possibilities in its development and extension. The expectation of organic farming profitability in small-scale family farming, supported by known successful examples, were the theme of a field study on Lis Valley Irrigation District to assess the constraints to its expansion in order to outline the procedures for the acquisition of technical knowledge, the adaptation of technologies, the support for the conversion of production models, and the specialized training of farmers for action. Results revealed that the: (i) farmer’s land structure, (ii) their mature age, (iii) low education level, and (iv) markets, are the main constrains for organic farming development. Furthermore, other uncertainties were identified, namely: (i) the certification process, (ii) the knowledge of new technologies, especially of crop protection, and (iii) the marketing problems to guaranteeing profitability. This study concludes that organic farming has significant potential for development in the Lis Valley and that the efforts and resources of the various stakeholders, namely the state, need to be harmonized to deliver effective support to farmers to promote organic farming that prioritizes: (i) rural development policies, (ii) supporting land restructuring, (iii) modernization of irrigation, (iv) stimulation of young farmers, (v) conversion and implementation of innovative technologies, (vi) the organization of farmers for better productive efficiency, and (vii) to facilitate market access.

Akselerasi waktu pelaporan operasi irigasi menggunakan perangkat lunak berbasis web sistem manajemen operasi dan pemeliharaan irigasi (SMOPI)

Pengelolaan irigasi yang lebih efisien saat ini sangat diperlukan dalam menghadapi ketersediaan air yang semakin terbatas dan kebutuhan air untuk selain sektor pertanian yang semakin meningkat. Hal ini dapat dilakukan dengan meningkatkan ketepatan pemberian air irigasi melalui optimalisasi interval operasi irigasi. Salah satu upaya yang dapat dilakukan adalah dengan meminimalisasi waktu pelaporan operasi irigasi menggunakan perangkat lunak berbasis web Sistem Manajemen Operasi Irigasi (SMOPI). Penelitian ini dilakukan untuk mengidentifikasi waktu minimal yang diperlukan untuk pelaporan operasi irigasi, baik secara manual ataupun menggunakan SMOPI. Penelitian ini dilakukan dalam bentuk studi kasus di Daerah Irigasi Bondoyudo melalui pengumpulan data dengan cara diskusi dan penyebaran kuesioner serta analisis waktu operasi menggunakan Critical Path Method. Berdasarkan hasil analisis, pelaporan operasi irigasi secara manual membutuhkan waktu 43 jam pada tahap perencanaan tanam, 41 jam pada tahap pengaturan pemberian air, dan 45 jam pada tahap rekapitulasi hasil. Kebutuhan sekitar 5 hari pada tahap pengaturan pemberian air mengindikasikan bahwa interval operasi irigasi eksisting setiap 10 hari cukup aman. Perangkat lunak SMOPI mampu mengakselerasi waktu operasi pada tahap perencanaan tanam, pengaturan pemberian air, dan rekapitulasi hasil masing-masing menjadi 24,5 jam, 14 jam, dan 31,5 jam. Akselerasi ini mengindikasikan bahwa SMOPI dapat digunakan untuk membantu mempersingkat interval operasi irigasi dalam upaya moderinasi irigasi.

Analisis kesiapan modernisasi irigasi pada daerah irigasi kewenangan pemerintah provinsi di Kabupaten Mojokerto

Dalam melaksanakan pengelolaan sistem irigasi pada daerah irigasi kewenangan pemerintah Provinsi Jawa Timur di Kabupaten Mojokerto, Dinas PU Sumber Daya Air Provinsi Jawa Timur mengalami beberapa kendala yaitu jaringan irigasi telah habis umur teknisnya, kurang optimalnya pelayanan irigasi serta terjadinya penurunan kapasitas tampungan air yang ada. Kendala lainnya yaitu adanya pertumbuhan penduduk yang menyebabkan peningkatan kebutuhan penggunaan air, peningkatan kebutuhan pangan, alih fungsi lahan pertanian menjadi pemukiman maupun industri serta Daerah Aliran Sungai kritis. Sebagai upaya untuk mengatasi kendala tersebut, selain operasi, pemeliharaan dan rehabilitasi, diperlukan suatu pembaharuan secara menyeluruh, baik manajerial, institusional maupun teknikal, termasuk sumber daya manusianya, yang dikenal dengan istilah modernisasi irigasi. Sebelum melaksanakan kegiatan modernisasi irigasi, perlu adanya suatu penilaian untuk mengukur tingat kesiapan suatu daerah irigasi dalam melaksanakan kegiatan modernisasi irigasi tersebut. Langkah pertama yaitu menentukan kriteria yang mempengaruhi modernisasi irigasi, dalam hal ini terdapat 5 kriteria dan 34 sub kriteria. Penentuan bobot kriteria dilakukan dengan metode Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process. Kemudian setelah itu, skala prioritas kesiapan daerah irigasi dalam melaksanakan kegiatan modernisasi irigasi ditentukan dengan metode Simple Additive Weighting. Dari 7 daerah irigasi kewenangan pemerintah provinsi Jawa Timur yang ada di Kabupaten Mojokerto, didapatkan skala prioritas bahwa modernisasi irigasi dapat diterapkan pada DI Kromong. Modernisasi irigasi perlu ditunda untuk dilakukan penyempurnaan terlebih dahulu pada DI Mernung, DI Sinoman, DI Penewon, DI Candi Limo, DI Jatikulon, dan DI Subontoro.

Web-based System for Decision Support on Surface Irrigation Modernization

The purpose of this paper is to describe a web-based system to assist on-farm design and management of surface irrigation systems. This application was designed to be an appropriate tool for generating design alternatives associated with attributes of technical, economic, and environmental nature, and handling and evaluating a large number of input and output data. It also allows the evaluation and ranking of design alternatives using multicriteria analysis where criteria are weighted according to the priorities and perception of the designer and users, and provides an appropriate dialogue between the designer and the user, with an effective help support with information about equipments and irrigation practices. The application has tools for the resolution of specific problems, such as land leveling, pipe sizing and economic calculation. Built with a simple user friendly interface, with several optional languages and online help for technical aspects, this tool will contribute to support the dissemination of knowledge, design procedures and field practices of surface irrigation. Tests and demonstrations are being done on Hetao Irrigation District, China.

Toward modernization of irrigation from concept to implementations : Indonesia case

In the last decades before entering 21fts century, many countries of the world have been facing critical issues of less in food production, lack energy availability and weak water recourses management as well. Beside of these issues another phenomenon dealing with climate change also is coming up and treating peoples in some respects. In the developing country such as Indonesia environmental load in term of increasing population rate occur tremendously. More peoples mean more resources have to be provided. However, some recourse is scares and others are not available every time. Better water resources management even this aspect was considered as critical one, but it was could be used as a tool to solve the problems properly. Increasing water users in the river basin would also create competition among of them. Recently about 80 % of water use in the world goes to irrigation purposes and most of them are managed inefficient and less effective way. Changing of government policy and change of ecology may made irrigation water management getting worst. Irrigation management could not implement by using conventional method. A new approach to make irrigation management running better must be setting up. The Ministry of public works and Housing to represent Government of Republic of Indonesia launched irrigation modernization of Indonesia program in year of 2011. This paper aims to present concept and implementation progress of the Program.

Cross-sectoral implications of the implementation of irrigation water use efficiency policies in Spain: A nexus footprint approach

Abstract One technical solution often suggested for alleviating water scarcity is to increase the efficiency of irrigation water use. In Spain, several plans have been launched since 2000 to upgrade irrigation infrastructures and thereby achieve water savings equivalent to 2500 hm3/year and promote rural development. The present study uses a footprint approach to evaluate the impacts on land, water, energy, and carbon emissions of the implementation of irrigation modernization policies in agriculture in Spain between 2005 and 2011. The results show that during the period studied, the irrigated area remained stable (+0.3%), although there was a shift in crop patterns, with low-value non-permanent crops being replaced by high-value permanent crops. The water demand for irrigation decreased by 21%; half of this is explained by the shift in crop patterns and the reduction of the consumptive fraction (i.e., blue water footprint), and the other half by the cutback of return flows associated with the higher efficiency of the irrigation infrastructure. Changes in water demand have been accompanied by a progressive substitution of surface water for groundwater. Reduced water demand for irrigation has brought a reduction of 13% in water’s energy footprint and 25% in its carbon footprint. In relative terms, water efficiency (m3 consumed/m3 irrigated) has increased by 8%, although this has also increased the energy intensity (kWh/m3) to 9%. The emission rate (kgCO2 equiv/m3 irrigated) has decreased by 12% as a result of the drop in the emission factor of electricity production. Overall, irrigation modernization policies in Spain have supported the transition from an irrigation sector that is less technified and heavily dependent on surface water into one that is more productive and groundwater-based. From a resource-use perspective, such transition has contributed to stabilizing or even decreasing the irrigated land, and surpass the annual water savings target of 2500 hm3, although it has also made the sector more energy-dependent. Despite the overall positive outcomes, the observed water savings are masked by various synergistic factors, including favorable climatological conditions toward the end of the study period, which contributed strongly to curbing overall irrigation water demand. In the light of the higher frequency of observed droughts in Spain, the investments done so far do not guarantee that the planned water saving targets can be sustained if not complemented with additional measures like restricting irrigated area and/or setting caps for water intensive crops.

Reclamation projects development improvement technology considering optimization of drained lands water regulation based on BIM

Improvement principles of development reclamation projects technologies considering drained lands water regulation optimization based on BIM were observed. Modern methodological basis and at the same time, universal technical tool that allows to improve the practice of designing complex objects and systems that is successfully used and developed in almost all fields of science, technology and industry is computer aided design building information modelling – BIM. In structural terms BIM is an organizational and technical system consisting of a large number of interrelated and interacting components. The main function of BIM is to carry out object aided design and their components through the use of mathematical models and other automated design procedures and computer technology. So, transition to optimization design methods will help to improve the overall ecological and economic efficiency of drainage reclamation, especially in working out new construction, reconstruction and modernization of irrigation and drainage systems.

Analisis Kesiapan Modernisasi Daerah Irigasi Kedung Putri Pada Tingkat Sekunder Menggunakan Metode K-Medoids Clustering

Preparation for the modernization of the Kedung Putri Irrigation System (DI Kedung Putri) required a comprehensive assessment of the irrigation pillars, one of which was at the secondary level. To facilitate the assessment and development plan, a clustering was carried out using the k-medoids method, that used a representative data (called medoid) as the cluster center. Then, the decision making was conducted by using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method. Performance assessment of 21 secondary channels was stated as the readiness index of irrigation modernization (IKMI). The assessment result showed that 9,52% included in good criteria, 71,43% included in fair criteria, and 19,05% included in poor criteria. Based on these results that DI Kedung Putri was not ready yet to be modernized. For this reason, it was necessary to conduct the system improvement in groups, namely by grouping based on similarities (clustering). The used method was k-medoids clustering using Rapid Miner 9.0 software. The clustering result showed that the optimal cluster number were 4 clusters, with the Davies Bouldin Index (DBI) value -1,959. The members of the 0, 1, 2 and 3 cluster were 6, 6, 8 and 1 secondary channels, respectively. Furthermore, the priority scale in clusters development was needed based on the performance of irrigation pillars on secondary channels. The results of AHP analysis showed that the order of priority development starts from cluster 0, followed by cluster 2, 1, and 3. The recommendations for the development of secondary channels incorporated in cluster, such as increasing water supply, routine infrastructure maintenance, technical assistance, and public campaigns in irrigation management. The secondary channel incorporated in cluster 3 had good performance on all pillars, so it only needed to maintain the existing operation and maintenance patterns.

Analysis of Irrigation Modernization Pillars with Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process (FAHP) Approachment

Analysis of Irrigation Modernization Pillars with Fuzzy Analytical Hierarchy Process (FAHP) Approachment

PENYEMPURNAAN SISTEM PENGELOLAAN AIR IRIGASI MENGHADAPI IRIGASI MODERN DI INDONESIA

Damage to irrigation areas in Indonesia covering an area of 0.37 million hectares for severe damage and an area of 1.25 million hectares for moderate and mild damage, has an impact on Indonesia's ability in rice production; rice imports were almost half a century, and only the adequacy of rice was 2 X, i.e. 1984 and 2009. This was due to low irrigation services which resulted in less optimal carrying capacity of food security. The deterioration in the function of irrigation services can be grouped into 5 causes of low irrigation pillars, namely: vulnerability of water sources, lack of irrigation infrastructure, low irrigationwater management, weak management institutions, and low human resources. The cause will be eliminated by the irrigation modernization program by working on these five pillars. One of the pillars in the modernization of irrigation that needs to be improved is the irrigation management system. The purpose ofthis paper is to contribute ideas in improving the irrigation management system in Indonesia. The author has conducted observations and research on several irrigation areas, both the authority of the Central, Provincial and District Governments, especially visits to DI Wadaslintang, Central Java and DI Bondoyudo, East Java concerning irrigation water management systems. What stands out is the low level of irrigation services due to the inefficient irrigation water management system in Indonesia, in addition to the nature of service-based provision and not service-oriented based on farmers' needs. Identification wascarried out on the DI to find out the reasons for the low irrigation water management system, namely: orientation to water supply, calculation of irrigation requirements, water allocation method, irrigationwater distribution schedule, irrigation water loss, irrigation operational steps, irrigation water productivity measurement This study analyzes the factors causing the low irrigation water management system while making a formula for the improvement proposal in the form of 7 steps.

Effects of the Irrigation Modernization in Spain 2002–2015

Regions and basins suffering from water scarcity have promoted the modernization of irrigation systems, defined as irrigation efficiency enhancement as a measure for the adaptation to a growing demand and a limited supply of water resources. In the period 2002–2015, Spain carried out an intense irrigation modernization process with the aim of achieving significant water savings and higher flexibility and to guarantee supply, among other favourable outcomes (e.g. environmental and socio-economic). Nevertheless, certain unfavourable effects of irrigation modernization also need to be discussed. This study analyses these effects in Spain based upon a DPSIR (Driving forces, Pressures, States, Impacts, and Responses) framework and a wide-ranging review of the existing empirical literature. Our findings are highly relevant to inform decision-makers in the planning of future irrigation modernization programmes worldwide.