Iron Ultra-triathlon Research Articles

Changes in pacing variation with increasing race duration in ultra-triathlon races

Despite the increasing scientific interest in the relationship between pacing and performance in endurance sports, little information is available about pacing and pacing variation in ultra-endurance events such as ultra-triathlons. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the trends of pacing, pacing variation, the influence of age, sex, and performance level in ultra-triathlons of different distances. We analysed 969 finishers (849 men, 120 women) in 46 ultra-triathlons longer than the original Ironman® distance (e.g., Double-, Triple-, Quintuple- and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons) held from 2004 to 2015. Pacing speed was calculated for every cycling and running lap. Pacing variation was calculated as the coefficient of variation (%) between the average speed of each lap. Performance level (i.e., fast, moderate, slow) was defined according to the 33.3 and 66.6 percentile of the overall race time. A multivariate analysis (two-way ANOVA) was applied for the overall race time as the dependent variable with ‘sex’ and ‘age group’ as independent factors. Another multivariate model with ‘age’ and ‘sex’ as covariates (two-way ANCOVA) was applied with pacing variation (cycling and running) as the dependent variable with ‘race’ and ‘performance level’ as independent factors. Different pacing patterns were observed by event and performance level. The general pacing strategy applied was a positive pacing. In Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon, faster athletes paced more evenly with less variation than moderate or slower athletes. The variation in pacing speed increased with the length of the race. There was no significant difference in pacing variation between faster, moderate, and slower athletes in Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. Women had a slower overall performance than men. The best overall times were achieved at the age of 30–39 years. Successful ultra-triathlon athletes adapted a positive pacing strategy in all race distances. The variation in pacing speed increased with the length of the race. In shorter ultra-triathlon distances (i.e., Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon), faster athletes paced more evenly with less variation than moderate or slower athletes. In longer ultra-triathlon distances (i.e., Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon), there was no significant difference in pacing variation between faster, moderate, and slower athletes.

Differences in pacing during cycling and running in ultra-triathlons - The example of 'Swissultra'.

The knowledge of the most predictive split discipline and the pacing during a triathlon race is of utmost importance for planning an ultra-triathlon race. This study aimed at investigating the pacing during cycling and running splits in three different multi-stage ultra-triathlon race formats (i.e., Quintuple, Deca, and Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon with 5x, 10x and 20x the daily distance of a full Ironman-distance triathlon). A total of 48 male ultra-triathletes competing in Quintuple (n=14), Deca (n=25), and Double Deca (n=9) Iron ultra-triathlon "swissultra" between 2016 and 2019 in Switzerland were analyzed. For each race day, we calculated the total performance (sum of all laps time), average individual performance (average of all laps time within a race day) and pacing variation (coefficient of variation of race laps time) for cycling and running. Discipline (cycling and running) and race distance (Quintuple, Deca, and Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon) were used as independent parameters. The primary outcome variables were the time performance (daily and total) and the pacing variation. We applied two general linear models (GLM): the first model was a one-way ANOVA comparing total and daily performance by race distance, and the second model was a two-way ANOVA (race distance´ discipline) using pacing variation (average pace oscillation) as a dependent variable. The first GLM identified a significant race distance effect for total performance in both cycling (F = 375.6; p < 0.001; ηp2 = 0.943) and running (F = 267.8; p < 0.001; ηp2 = 0.922) with Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon being the fastest and Quintuple Iron ultra-triathlon the slowest. The GLM for daily average performance showed no significant effect of race distance on cycling performance (F = 0.171; p = 0.843; ηp2 = 0.008), but on running performance (F = 6.408; p = 0.004; ηp2 = 0.222). The two-way GLM comparing pacing variation showed a significant effect for race distance (F = 11.81; p<0.001; ηp2 = 0.344) with Deca presenting larger pace variation than Quintuple and Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon in both cycling and running, but not for discipline (F = 0.067; p=0.797; ηp2 = 0.001), nor for interaction (F = 1.469; p=0.241; ηp2 = 0.061). Athletes achieved a stable cycling performance independent of the length of the race, and the cycling split had an influence on the subsequent running split depending upon the length of the race.

Longitudinal Performance Analysis in Ultra-Triathlon of the World's 2 Best Master Triathletes.

To analyze the performances of 2 ultra-triathletes who competed in ultra-triathlon events (double Iron ultra-triathlon and triple Iron ultra-triathlon) for the past 3 decades. Longitudinal data of the performance development in ultra-triathlon athletes spanning many years are rare. Prediction of age-related performance declines in the different disciplines in triathlon events (swimming, cycling, and running) are needed for race directors to set realistic goals (time limits) for master athletes in these events. Athletes A and B had 34 and 53 participations in double Iron at 35-55 and 40-69y of age, respectively, and 26 and 20 participations in triple Iron at 33-51 and 40-61y of age, respectively. Nonlinear regression analyses were performed with split and overall performance against age. The average declines in performance in triple Iron ultra-triathlon for athlete A were 0.62%/y, 0.19%/y, and 0.98%/y for swimming, cycling, and running, respectively. For athlete B, a positive change was identified for swimming (0.19%/y) and cycling (1.12%/y) but negative change for running (1.34%/y). Running is the discipline with the greatest performance-decline rate for both athletes, in both double and triple Iron distances. The race time limit of double Iron competitions seems too short, making it difficult for master athletes older than 55y to finish the race within the event regulations.

Pacing and Performance Analysis of the World's Fastest Female Ultra-Triathlete in 5x and 10x Ironman.

The aim of the present case study was to analyse the performance data of the world’s best female ultra-triathlete setting a new world record in a Quintuple (5xIronman) and Deca Iron (10xIronman) ultra-triathlon, within and between race days, and between disciplines (cycling and running) and races (Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon). The subject was an elite female triathlete (52 kg, 169 cm) born in 1983. At the time of her world record in Quintuple Iron ultra-triathlon she had an age of 35 years and at the time of the world record in Deca Iron ultra-triathlon 36 years old. The distribution of time spent in each discipline and transitions was 8.48% in swimming, 51.67% cycling, 37.91% running, and 1.94% transitions. There was no difference between the race days of the average speed neither in cycling nor running. The running pace had a within-day variation larger than the cycling pace, and also varied more between race days. In conclusion, the world’s best female ultra-triathlete adopted a steady (even) pacing strategy for both cycling and running, without substantial variations within- or between race days, for both the world record in a Quintuple and a Deca Iron ultra-triathlon.

Ultra-triathlon-Pacing, performance trends, the role of nationality, and sex differences in finishers and non-finishers.

Ultra-triathlons are defined as triathlons longer than the traditional Ironman distance and became more popular in the last two decades; however, scarce scientific evidence of these events are available. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the trends of performance, pacing, nationality, sex differences, and rate of non-finishers in ultra-triathlons. Data from 1985 to 2018 were collected including Double Iron, Triple Iron, Quintuple Iron, and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons. Different pacing patterns by event and sex were observed (P<.05); athletes spent less %time in swimming and cycling, and more %time in running as the distance of event was longer; women spent more %time in cycling and less% time in running in Double and Triple. Performance analysis showed a negative trend over time for men and women since 1985. Switzerland, France, and Germany were the fastest nations in ultra-triathlons. The frequency of North Americans competing in Europe was very low (<5%), whereas Europeans often competed in North America (~25%). The rate of non-finishers between sexes was similar in all races with the exception of Deca Iron ultra-triathlon, which was much greater (~20%) for women. Non-finishers had slower race times in swimming and cycling splits than finishers. In conclusion, ultra-triathletes should redistribute their energy among swimming, cycling, and running depending on their sex and distance of race. Performance in ultra-triathlons has been decreasing in men and women over the years, but sex difference in performance remained. Europeans were the fastest ultra-triathletes and compete in Europe and North America. Additionally, non-finishers were slower swimmers and cyclists than finishers.

Effects of The Performance Level and Race Distance on Pacing in Ultra-Triathlons.

The aim of this study was to examine the effects of the performance level and race distance on pacing in ultra-triathlons (Double, Triple, Quintuple and Deca), wherein pacing is defined as the relative time (%) spent in each discipline (swimming, cycling and running). All finishers (n = 3,622) of Double, Triple, Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons between 1985 and 2016 were analysed and classified into quartile groups (Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4) with Q1 being the fastest and Q4 the slowest. Performance of all non-finishers (n = 1,000) during the same period was also examined. Triple and Quintuple triathlons (24.4%) produced the highest rate of non-finishers, and Deca Iron ultra-triathlons produced the lowest rate (18.0%) (χ2 = 12.1, p = 0.007, φC = 0.05). For the relative swimming and cycling times (%), Deca triathletes (6.7 ± 1.5% and 48.8 ± 4.9%, respectively) proved the fastest and Double (9.2 ± 1.6% and 49.6 ± 3.6%) Iron ultra-triathletes were the slowest (p < 0.008) with Q4 being the fastest group (8.3 ± 1.6% and 48.8 ± 4.3%) and Q1 the slowest one (9.5 ± 1.5% and 50.9 ± 3.0%) (p < 0.001). In running, Double triathletes were relatively the fastest (41.2 ± 4.0%) and Deca (44.5 ± 5.4%) Iron ultra-triathletes the slowest (p < 0.001) with Q1 being the fastest (39.6 ± 3.3%) and Q4 the slowest group (42.9 ± 4.7%) (p < 0.001). Based on these findings, it was concluded that the fastest ultra-triathletes spent relatively more time swimming and cycling and less time running, highlighting the importance of the role of the latter discipline for the overall ultra-triathlon performance. Furthermore, coaches and ultra-triathletes should be aware of differences in pacing between Double, Triple, Quintuple and Deca Iron triathlons.

Pacing in Deca and Double Deca Iron Ultra-Triathlon

It has been shown that Deca Iron ultra-triathletes (i.e. performing one Ironman triathlon per day for 10 days) progressively slowed down whereas daily performance in a Triple Deca Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. performing 30 Ironman triathlons within 30 days) remained unchanged. We investigated pacing in the first Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 20 Ironman triathlons within 20 days) held in history and hypothesized that athletes in Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon would pace evenly (i.e. no decrease in daily performance over time) while athletes in Deca Iron ultra-triathlon would pace positively (i.e. become slower over time). Day 1 was the fastest in both the Deca and the Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. In the Deca Iron ultra-triathlon, Day 7 was the slowest and Day 5 was the slowest in the Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. In the Deca Iron ultra-triathlon, swimming and cycling splits were faster compared to the Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon whereas in the Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon, the running splits were faster than in the Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. In summary, in both the Deca and the Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon, athletes paced evenly. In contrast to earlier findings in Deca and Triple Deca Iron ultra-triathlon, the last day was not the slowest day. This was most probably due to environmental conditions. The findings of this study may be important for exercise physiologists, coaches, athletes and enthusiasts of this sport.

The aspect of experience in ultra-triathlon races.

Previous experience seems to be an important predictor for endurance and ultra-endurance performance. The present study investigated whether the number of previously completed races and/or the personal best times in shorter races is more predictive for performance in longer non-stop ultra-triathlons such as a Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. All female and male ultra-triathletes who had finished between 1985 and 2014 at least one Double Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 7.6 km swimming, 360 km cycling and 84.4 km running), one Triple Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 11.4 km swimming, 540 km cycling and 126.6 km running), one Quintuple Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 19 km swimming, 900 km cycling and 221 km running) and one Deca Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 38 km swimming, 1,800 km cycling and 422 km running) were identified and their best race times for each distance were recorded. Multiple regression analysis (stepwise, forward selection, p of F for inclusion <0.05, p of F for exclusion >0.1, listwise deletion) was used to determine all variables correlating to overall race time and performance in split disciplines for both Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. The number of finished shorter races (i.e. Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon) was not associated with the number of finished longer races (i.e. Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon) whereas both split and overall race times correlated to split and overall race times of the longer races with the exception of the swimming split times in Double Iron ultra-triathlon showing no correlation with swimming split times in both Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. In summary, previous experience seemed of importance in performance for longer ultra-triathlon races (i.e. Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon) where the personal best times of shorter races (i.e. Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon) were important, but not the number of previously finished races. For athletes and coaches, fast race times in shorter ultra-triathlon races (i.e. Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon) are more important than a large of number finished races in order to achieve a fast race time in a longer ultra-triathlon (i.e. Quintuple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon).

A comparison of performance of Deca Iron and Triple Deca Iron ultra-triathletes.

This study intended to compare the performance of ultra-triathletes competing in a Deca Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 10 times 3.8 km swimming, 180 km cycling, and 42.2 km running) with the performance of athletes competing in a Triple Deca Iron ultra-triathlon (i.e. 30 times 3.8 km swimming, 180 km cycling, and 42.2 km running). Split and overall race times of six male finishers in a Deca Iron ultra-triathlon and eight male finishers in a Triple Deca Iron ultra-triathlon were analysed using multiple t-tests, linear and non-linear regression analyses, and analysis of variance. Among the 19 starters (i.e. 17 men and two women) in the Deca Iron ultra-triathlon, six men (i.e. 35.3% of all starters) finished the race. The mean swimming, cycling, running and overall race times of the six finishers across the ten days were 1:19 ± 0:09 h:min, 6:36 ± 0:19 h:min, 6:03 ± 0:47 h:min and 14:44 ± 1:17 h:min, respectively. The times of the split disciplines and overall race time increased linearly across the ten days. Total transition times did not change significantly across the days and were equals to 48 ± 8 min. Among the 22 starters (i.e. 20 men and two women) in the Triple Deca Iron ultra-triathlon, eight men (i.e. 36.4% of all starters) finished. The mean swimming, cycling, running and overall race times of the eight finishers across the 30 days were 1:11 ± 0:07 h:min, 6:19 ± 0:32 h:min, 5:34 ± 1:15 h:min and 13:44 ± 1:50 h:min, respectively. Split and overall race times showed no change across the 30 days. Total transition times showed no change across the days and were equal to 41 ± 11 min. To summarize, the daily performance decreased across the ten days for the Deca Iron ultra-triathletes (i.e. positive pacing) while it remained unchanged across the 30 days for the Triple Deca Iron ultra-triathletes (i.e. even pacing).

Sex difference in top performers from Ironman to double deca iron ultra-triathlon.

This study investigated changes in performance and sex difference in top performers for ultra-triathlon races held between 1978 and 2013 from Ironman (3.8 km swim, 180 km cycle, and 42 km run) to double deca iron ultra-triathlon distance (76 km swim, 3,600 km cycle, and 844 km run). The fastest men ever were faster than the fastest women ever for split and overall race times, with the exception of the swimming split in the quintuple iron ultra-triathlon (19 km swim, 900 km cycle, and 210.1 km run). Correlation analyses showed an increase in sex difference with increasing length of race distance for swimming (r2=0.67, P=0.023), running (r2=0.77, P=0.009), and overall race time (r2=0.77, P=0.0087), but not for cycling (r2=0.26, P=0.23). For the annual top performers, split and overall race times decreased across years nonlinearly in female and male Ironman triathletes. For longer distances, cycling split times decreased linearly in male triple iron ultra-triathletes, and running split times decreased linearly in male double iron ultra-triathletes but increased linearly in female triple and quintuple iron ultra-triathletes. Overall race times increased nonlinearly in female triple and male quintuple iron ultra-triathletes. The sex difference decreased nonlinearly in swimming, running, and overall race time in Ironman triathletes but increased linearly in cycling and running and nonlinearly in overall race time in triple iron ultra-triathletes. These findings suggest that women reduced the sex difference nonlinearly in shorter ultra-triathlon distances (ie, Ironman), but for longer distances than the Ironman, the sex difference increased or remained unchanged across years. It seems very unlikely that female top performers will ever outrun male top performers in ultratriathlons. The nonlinear change in speed and sex difference in Ironman triathlon suggests that female and male Ironman triathletes have reached their limits in performance.

Performance and sex difference in ultra-triathlon performance from Ironman to Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon between 1978 and 2013.

It was assumed that women would be able to outperform men in ultra-marathon running. The present study investigated the sex difference in performance for all ultra-triathlon distances from the Ironman distance (i.e. 3.8 km swimming, 180 km cycling and 42 km running) in the ‘Ironman Hawaii’ to the Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlon distance (i.e. 76 km swimming, 3,600 km cycling and 840 km running) between 1978 and 2013. The changes in performance and in the sex difference in performance for the annual three fastest finishers were analysed using linear, non-linear and multi-variate regression analyses from 46,123 athletes (i.e. 9,802 women and 46,123 men). Women accounted for 11.9 ± 5.8% of the total field and their percentage was highest in ‘Ironman Hawaii’ (22.1%) and lowest in Deca Iron ultra-triathlon (6.5%). In ‘Ironman Hawaii’, the sex difference decreased non-linearly in swimming, cycling, running and overall race time. In Double Iron ultra-triathlon, the sex difference increased non-linearly in overall race time. In Triple Iron ultra-triathlon, the sex difference increased non-linearly in cycling and overall race time but linearly in running. For the three fastest finishers ever, the sex difference in performance showed no change with increasing race distance with the exception for the swimming split where the sex difference increased with increasing race distance (r2 = 0.93, P = 0.001). The sex differences for the three fastest finishers ever for swimming, cycling, running and overall race times for all distances from Ironman to Deca Iron ultra-triathlon were 27.0 ± 17.8%, 24.3 ± 9.9%, 24.5 ± 11.0%, and 24.0 ± 6.7%, respectively. To summarize, these findings showed that women reduced the sex difference in the shorter ultra-triathlon distances (i.e. Ironman distance) but extended the sex difference in longer distances (i.e. Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon). It seems very unlikely that women will ever outperform men in ultra-triathlons from Ironman to Double Iron ultra-triathlon.

Sex difference in Double Iron ultra-triathlon performance

BackgroundThe present study examined the sex difference in swimming (7.8 km), cycling (360 km), running (84 km), and overall race times for Double Iron ultra-triathletes.MethodsSex differences in split times and overall race times of 1,591 men and 155 women finishing a Double Iron ultra-triathlon between 1985 and 2012 were analyzed.ResultsThe annual number of finishes increased linearly for women and exponentially for men. Men achieved race times of 1,716 ± 243 min compared to 1,834 ± 261 min for women and were 118 ± 18 min (6.9%) faster (p < 0.01). Men finished swimming within 156 ± 63 min compared to women with 163 ± 31 min and were 8 ± 32 min (5.1 ± 5.0%) faster (p < 0.01). For cycling, men (852 ± 196 min) were 71 ± 70 min (8.3 ± 3.5%) faster than women (923 ± 126 min) (p < 0.01). Men completed the run split within 710 ± 145 min compared to 739 ± 150 min for women and were 30 ± 5 min (4.2 ± 3.4%) faster (p = 0.03). The annual three fastest men improved race time from 1,650 ± 114 min in 1985 to 1,339 ± 33 min in 2012 (p < 0.01). Overall race time for women remained unchanged at 1,593 ± 173 min with an unchanged sex difference of 27.1 ± 8.6%. In swimming, the split times for the annual three fastest women (148 ± 14 min) and men (127 ± 20 min) remained unchanged with an unchanged sex difference of 26.8 ± 13.5%. In cycling, the annual three fastest men improved the split time from 826 ± 60 min to 666 ± 18 min (p = 0.02). For women, the split time in cycling remained unchanged at 844 ± 54 min with an unchanged sex difference of 25.2 ± 7.3%. In running, the annual fastest three men improved split times from 649 ± 77 min to 532 ± 16 min (p < 0.01). For women, however, the split times remained unchanged at 657 ± 70 min with a stable sex difference of 32.4 ± 12.5%.ConclusionsTo summarize, the present findings showed that men were faster than women in Double Iron ultra-triathlon, men improved overall race times, cycling and running split times, and the sex difference remained unchanged across years for overall race time and split times. The sex differences for overall race times and split times were higher than reported for Ironman triathlon.

Age-related changes in ultra-triathlon performances

BackgroundThe age-related decline in performance has been investigated in swimmers, runners and triathletes. No study has investigated the age-related performance decline in ultra-triathletes. The purpose of this study was to analyse the age-related declines in swimming, cycling, running and overall race time for both Triple Iron ultra-triathlon (11.4-km swimming, 540-km cycling and 126.6-km running) and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon (38-km swimming, 1,800-km cycling and 420-km running).MethodsThe age and performances of 423 male Triple Iron ultra-triathletes and 119 male Deca Iron ultra-triathletes were analysed from 1992 to 2010 using regression analyses and ANOVA.ResultsThe mean age of the finishers was significantly higher for Deca Iron ultra-triathletes (41.3 ± 3.1 years) compared to a Triple Iron ultra-triathletes (38.5 ± 3.3 years) (P < 0.05). For both ultra-distances, the fastest overall race times were achieved between the ages of 25 and 44 years. Deca Iron ultra-triathletes achieved the same level of performance in swimming and cycling between 25 and 54 years of age.ConclusionsThe magnitudes of age-related declines in performance in the three disciplines of ultra-triathlon differ slightly between Triple and Deca Iron ultra-triathlon. Although the ages of Triple Iron ultra-triathletes were on average younger compared to Deca Iron ultra-triathletes, the fastest race times were achieved between 25 and 44 years for both distances. Further studies should investigate the motivation and training of ultra-triathletes to gain better insights in ultra-triathlon performance.

Central European triathletes dominate Double Iron ultratriathlon &amp;ndash; analysis of participation and performance 1985&amp;ndash;2011

BackgroundA recent study showed that European triathletes performed faster in Double Iron ultratriathlons than North American athletes. The present study analyzed triathletes participating in Double Iron ultratriathlons to determine the origin of the fastest Double Iron ultratriathletes, focusing on European countries.MethodsParticipation and performance trends of finishers in Double Iron ultratriathlons from 1985–2011 of the different countries were investigated. Additionally, the performance trends of the top three women and men overall from 2001–2011 were analyzed.ResultsA total of 1490 finishers originated from 24 different European countries and the United States. The number of European triathletes increased for both women (r2 = 0.56; P < 0.01) and men (r2 = 0.63; P < 0.01). The number of the North American triathletes increased for women (r2 = 0.25; P < 0.01), but not for men (r2 = 0.02; P > 0.05). Hungarian triathletes showed a significant improvement in both overall race times and in cycling split times, Swiss triathletes improved both their swim and run times, and French triathletes improved their swim times.ConclusionMen and women triathletes from Central European countries such as France, Germany, Switzerland, and Hungary improved Double Iron ultratriathlon overall race times and split times during the 26-year period. The reasons might be the social and economic factors required to be able to participate in such an expensive and lavish race. Also, a favorable climate may provide the ideal conditions for successful training. Future studies need to investigate the motivational aspects of European ultraendurance athletes.

Participation and Performance Trends in Triple Iron Ultra-triathlon – a Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Data Analysis

The aims of the present study were to investigate (i) the changes in participation and performance and (ii) the gender difference in Triple Iron ultra-triathlon (11.4 km swimming, 540 km cycling and 126.6 km running) across years from 1988 to 2011. For the cross-sectional data analysis, the association between with overall race times and split times was investigated using simple linear regression analyses and analysis of variance. For the longitudinal data analysis, the changes in race times for the five men and women with the highest number of participations were analysed using simple linear regression analyses. During the studied period, the number of finishers were 824 (71.4%) for men and 80 (78.4%) for women. Participation increased for men (r(2)=0.27, P<0.01) while it remained stable for women (8%). Total race times were 2,146 ± 127.3 min for men and 2,615 ± 327.2 min for women (P<0.001). Total race time decreased for men (r(2)=0.17; P=0.043), while it increased for women (r(2)=0.49; P=0.001) across years. The gender difference in overall race time for winners increased from 10% in 1992 to 42% in 2011 (r(2)=0.63; P<0.001). The longitudinal analysis of the five women and five men with the highest number of participations showed that performance decreased in one female (r(2)=0.45; P=0.01). The four other women as well as all five men showed no change in overall race times across years. Participation increased and performance improved for male Triple Iron ultra-triathletes while participation remained unchanged and performance decreased for females between 1988 and 2011. The reasons for the increase of the gap between female and male Triple Iron ultra-triathletes need further investigations.

European dominance in Triple Iron ultra-triathlons from 1988 to 2011

The aims of this study were (i) to investigate the participation in Triple Iron ultra-triathlons covering 11.4 km swimming, 540 km cycling, and 126.6 km running between 1988 and 2011 and (ii) to analyze the nationalities of the athletes achieving the fastest swimming, cycling, running and overall race times. Six out of seven races worldwide were held in Europe. Participation of male Triple Iron ultra-triathlons increased over the 24-year period while the participation of females remained stable at ~8% of the total field. Out of the 1,258 participants, 1.077 athletes (85.6%) originated from Europe. The number of male European athletes (r2 = 0.23; P = 0.02) and male North American athletes (r2 = 0.35; P < 0.01) increased across years. European males (2.161±168.5 min) were faster (P < 0.05) than both European females (2.615±327.2 min) and North American males (2.850±370.6 min). Male European athletes improved (r2 = 0.18; P = 0.043), while European females impaired (r2 = 0.48; P = 0.001) overall race time. To summarize, participation in Triple Iron ultra-triathlon increased across years where most of the participants originated from Europe. European males achieved the fastest overall race times and improved their performance across years. Future studies need to investigate what motivates these athletes to compete in these races.

From Double Iron to Double Deca Iron Ultra-Triathlon - A Retrospective Data Analysis from 1985 to 2011

From Double Iron to Double Deca Iron Ultra-Triathlon - A Retrospective Data Analysis from 1985 to 2011Participation in ultra-endurance performance is of increasing popularity. We analyzed the historic development of the ultra-triathlon scene from 1985 to 2011 focusing on a) worldwide distribution of competition, b) participation, c) gender, and d) athlete nationality. We examined the participation trends of 3,579 athletes, involving 3,297 men (92.1%) and 300 women (7.9%), using linear regression analyses. Between 1985 and 2011, a total of 96 Double Iron ultra-triathlons (7.6km swimming, 360km cycling, and 84.4km running), 51 Triple Iron ultra-triathlons (11.6km swimming, 540km cycling, and 126.6km running), five Quadruple Iron ultra-triathlons (15.2km swimming, 720km cycling, and 168.8km running), five Quintuple Iron ultra-triathlons (19km swimming, 900km cycling, and 211km running), 11 Deca Iron ultra-triathlons (38km swimming, 1,800km cycling, and 422km running), and two Double Deca Iron ultra-triathlons (76km swimming, 3,600km cycling, and 844km running) were held. In total, 56.7% of the races were in Europe, 37.4% in North America, 5.3% in South America, and less than 1% in Asia. Europeans comprised 80% of the athletes. The number of male participants in Double (r2 = .56; P &lt; .001) and Triple Iron ultra-triathlon (r2 = .47; P &lt; .001) and the number of female participants in Double Iron ultra-triathlon (r2 = .66; P &lt; .001) increased significantly. Less than 8% of the athletes total participated in an ultra-triathlon longer than a Triple Iron ultra-triathlon. Europeans won by far the most competitions in every distance. In conclusion, ultra-triathlon popularity is mainly limited to a) European and North American men and b) Double and Triple Iron ultra-triathlons. Future studies need to investigate the motivation of these ultra-endurance athletes to compete in these extreme races.

European athletes dominate performances in Double Iron ultra-triathlons – A retrospective data analysis from 1985 to 2010

We investigated the participation and performance trends of ultra-endurance triathletes from all nationalities competing in a Double Iron ultra-triathlon (7.6-km swim, 360-km cycle and 84.4-km run) from 1985 to 2010. A total of 1854 athletes participated in 92 Double Iron ultra-triathlons. The majority of the winners came from Europe with 72 victories, followed by North America with 17 victories. The race time for the European ultra-triathletes was 1340 (s=95.3) min, decreasing highly significantly (r 2=0.28; P<0.0001) across the years. North American ultra-triathletes finished the races within 1556 (s=124.5) min; their race time showed no changes across the years (r 2=0.045; P=0.07). The race time for the Europeans was highly significantly faster compared to the North Americans (P<0.0001). Future studies should investigate each country in Europe and North America in order to find the country with the largest participation of athletes and their best performance.