Iron Triangle Research Articles

Shannon entropy weighting technique as a practical weighting decision-making tool in project management

The decision-making process in projects needs various qualitative and quantitative techniques to make reliable decisions. This study proposes a technique based on multi attributes decision making (MADM) and Shannon entropy weighting technique (S.E.W.T) to prioritise the elements of the iron triangle; cost, time, and quality, in three different sectors: construction, steel, and transportation. Even though the presence of S.E.W.T was insignificant in project management during the last decade, this study tries to refresh this technique as a critical decision tool in projects. This technique could benefit task managers and others making everyday decisions during project execution and design. This is not a comparative study between S.E.W.T and other MADMs, but a study in which the use of S.E.W.T as a weighting decision-making tool for project analysts is expanded, as it need fast and reliable decision-making tools.

Project management practice and its effects on project success in Malaysian construction industry

The rapid economic development has increased the demand for construction of infrastructure and facilities globally. Sustainable development and globalization are the new ‘Zeitgeist’ of the 21st century. In order to implement these projects successfully and to meet the functional aim of the projects within their lifetime, an efficient project management practice is needed. The aim of this study is to identify the critical success factors (CSFs) and the extent of use of project management practice which affects project success, especially during the implementation stage. Data were obtained from self-administered questionnaires with 232 respondents. A mixed method of data collection was adopted using semi-structured interview and questionnaire approach. The result of the analysis of data obtained showed that new and emerging criteria such as customer satisfaction, competency of the project team, and performance of subcontractors/suppliers are becoming measures of success in addition to the classic iron triangle’s view of time, cost and quality. An insight on the extent of use of different project management practice in the industry was also achieved from the study.

Different perspectives of public project managers on project success

PurposeThe authors argue that public project managers do not consider the iron triangle (cost, quality and schedule) primary important in measuring the success of their projects. To investigate which success criteria are important to public project managers, the authors interviewed 26 Dutch project managers who are employed by the government and who are responsible for managing infrastructural projects. The paper aims to discuss these issues.Design/methodology/approachIn this research the Q-methodology is applied. Q-methodology helps to find for correlations between subjects across a sample of variables. Q-factor analysis reduces the individual viewpoints down to a few factors. A factor can be seen as the mathematical representation of an “average” perspective shared by a group of people.FindingsFindings are based on the individual rankings of 19 success criteria; the authors distinguished three common perspectives: the holistic and cooperative leader, the socially engaged, ambiguous manager and the executor of a top-down assignment. In none of the perspectives the iron triangle criteria formed the top three to measure project success.Research limitations/implicationsThe research results may have a national character. The way project success is perceived by public project managers may be culture dependent. For this the authors expand the research to other countries in the near future.Practical implicationsThis paper contributes to the understanding of the public project manager by their private collaboration partners, like consultants, engineers and contractors. This will help them to understand their client and contribute to better collaboration in projects.Originality/valueThis paper shows that the difference in work attitude and value frame in the public sector leads to a specific view on project success.

Evaluation of project success: a structured literature review

PurposeBarnes’ Iron Triangle was one of the first attempts to evaluate project success based on time, cost and performance, which were portrayed as interdependent dimensions. Over time, these criteria were expanded and especially criteria taking the satisfaction of stakeholder groups into account are becoming more and more popular. The purpose of this paper is to find out whether specific patterns for the selection of project success criteria across various fields of applications emerged which has not been regarded in literature before. Furthermore, the authors seek to identify of additional key factors influencing project success assessment next to the choice of project success criteria.Design/methodology/approachThe paper uses a review of recent literature published in academic journals, in standard references and in widespread project management frameworks (Organisational Competence Baseline, PRINCE2 and PMBoK Guide).FindingsThe findings show that Barnes’ ideas are an integral part of all approaches investigated in the study. Additionally, the relevance of the so-called “soft criteria” related to the satisfaction of stakeholder groups, could be substantiated. However, the authors found no indications that patterns for the selection of project success criteria have emerged across various fields of applications. Factors influencing project success assessment are not taken into account in the examined articles in a systematic manner. This motivates for further research in this field.Research limitations/implicationsAccess limitations, papers not yet digitally available or the interpretations have an impact on the results.Practical implicationsFor appropriate project assessment the sound and well-rounded selection of hard and soft criteria and the consideration that not the field of application, but influencing factors yet to be analysed influence the selection of project success criteria are crucial. Project management professionals should choose the criteria suitable for their projects individually on a project-by-project basis.Originality/valueThis paper reveals that no patterns have so far been developed to assess project success in various fields of application. Furthermore, factors influencing project success assessment are not considered in a systematic manner.

Appification, AI, and Healthcare's New Iron Triangle

The relationship between exponentially accelerating technologies and healthcare is simultaneously exciting, challenging, empowering, and (for some) frightening. Certainly, it has provoked numerous threads in the health law and life sciences law and policy literature. Too often, however, policymakers have tended to reduce healthcare data technology issues to oversimplified binaries (for example, data liquidity vs. life sciences). Yet, the relationships between the various healthcare stakeholders and how emerging technologies impact those relationships or the stakeholders individually are complex and multi-faceted. This complexity will only increase as healthcare assimilates not only patient-facing technologies such as medical apps but also next generation technologies such as robotics and AI. Healthcare policy choices in this “second machine age” will possess a degree of complexity that will no longer be reducible (if they ever were) to policy binaries. Indeed, for students of health law and policy, the level of complexity should bring to mind our foundational approach to discussing healthcare law and policy; the Iron Triangle of access, quality, and cost control contend that the next few decades will see us confronting multi-faceted problems that the traditional Iron Triangle does not adequately capture. Thus, I propose an additional “New,” or at least supplemental Triangle to reflect the issues that technologically-mediated healthcare and its stakeholders will be facing. This new triangle’s three points are Automation, Value, and Empathy. With this triangle, I hope to provide both an analytical lens and a sorting mechanism for working through the complex issues that will arise. The paper proceeds as follows. First, I reflect on the original Iron Triangle before introducing its young sibling, and discuss their differences, similarities, and intersections. However, just as the points of the original Iron Triangle only begin to tell the healthcare, story so Automation, Value, and Empathy are only the first layer or lens for discussion. Next, therefore, I take in order the points of the new triangle, drilling down into some of their properties, suggesting frames for analysis and themes for further study. I conclude by returning to a further comparison of the original and more recent “triangles.”

Colombia's Narcotics Nightmare: How the Drug Trade Destroyed Peace

Colombia's Narcotics Nightmare: How the Drug Trade Destroyed Peace

Leading entrepreneurial e-learning development in legal education

PurposeThe study aims to review the entrepreneurial and educational innovations in technology-enabled distance education in practical legal education (PLE) accomplished by a unit “on the periphery” of a strong research-led university. It also aims to examine the learning organisation (LO) attributes associated with this initiative.Design/methodology/approachThis is a longitudinal case study based on interviews and reflective analysis, and reviewed using three “models” drawn from the literature: breaking the “iron triangle” (containing costs; widening access; enhancing quality); a tailored version of distance education appropriate for research-intensive universities; a strategy for successful adoption of disruptive technologies in higher education.FindingsEntrepreneurialism yielded growth (PLE student numbers went from 150 to 2,000 in 15 years) and diversification (two new programmes established). The PLE programme advanced in two “waves”: the first centred on widening access and the second, on enhancing quality. Costs were contained. Both the presence and absence of LO attributes are identified at three different organisational levels.Research limitations/implicationsChallenges to academic identity may act to inhibit educational change, especially in research-strong settings.Practical/implicationsBusiness logic, and the creation and institutionalisation of educational development support – an “internal networking” group, were keys to success. “Organisational learning” in complex institutional environments such as universities involves understandably lengthy timescales (e.g. decades or more).Practical/implicationsTechnology-enabled disruption in higher education appears relentless. While institutional and individual performance metrics favour research, proven cases of “how to do things differently” in education may well not get exploited, thus opening the market to alternative providers.Originality/valueThis is the only empirical example of a tailored version of distance education appropriate for research-intensive universities that we know about.

The Breakdown of the Iron Triangle in the Process of Japan’s Trinity Reform: An Application of the Multiple Streams Framework to Compare Stakeholder Dynamics Inherent in Policy Change

To decentralize Japan’s fiscal system, the Trinity Reform, which was implemented from 2003 to 2007, reformed (i) the transference of tax revenue sources from the central to local governments, (ii) local allocation tax, and (iii) national subsidies and grants. This study drew on the multiple streams framework in public policy—including problem, policy, and politics—to understand the financial change process in intergovernmental relationships and the successes of Prime Minister Koizumi as a policy entrepreneur in breaking the iron triangle of the Liberal Democratic Party politicians, ministry bureaucrats, and local governments to administer the fiscal decentralization and local autonomy reform.

Disruption: It's So Much More Than Access

Healthcare TransformationVol. 2, No. 1 Open AccessDisruption: It's So Much More Than AccessStephen K. Klasko and Editor-in-ChiefStephen K. KlaskoSearch for more papers by this author and Editor-in-ChiefSearch for more papers by this authorPublished Online:1 Mar 2017https://doi.org/10.1089/heat.2017.29033.skkAboutSectionsPDF/EPUB Permissions & CitationsPermissionsDownload CitationsTrack CitationsAdd to favorites Back To Publication ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditEmail President Donald Trump has a unique opportunity to fundamentally disrupt a fragmented, expensive, inequitable, and illogical healthcare system by making a “deal” that puts patients first.It's our chance to ensure that healthcare will finally enter the consumer revolution.Every millennium, there is a confluence of events whereby fixing the existing reality is not enough, but rather a new model needs to be created. Steve Jobs did it by turning Apple from a computer company to a digital experience company.Changing the reality of healthcare won't be easy, but it can be done. We are already seeing 12 disrupters that enable transformation— disrupters that transcend politics.My book, We CAN Fix Healthcare: The Future Is NOW, assumes a science-fiction event forced us all to get over ourselves, and Democrats and Republicans alike agreed on 12 disruptors for the demise of the old healthcare. To many people, the election of 2016 represented that event.What are these disrupters?Some involve turning healthcare into a consumer-facing business, in which new generations, new consumers, and new entrepreneurs will outstrip our traditional business models.Some are opportunities that we can and must embrace to change the reality of healthcare disparities, physician practice, and the tortured path of reimbursement.Photo credit: Sabina Pierce.Addressing these disrupters will enable President Trump and the new administration to move forward with alacrity. The time for political rhetoric is past. It is time for meaningful action.This is why transformation is much more than the Affordable Care Act (ACA).The ACA did what it intended to: increase access. But we have in no way disrupted the system enough to break the iron triangle of access, quality, and cost that healthcare economist Bill Kissick, MD, spoke about 50 years ago.Here's my manifesto for change. I remain completely optimistic about transformation.And that's my message as a new administration settles in: embrace change.1. Embrace the consumer revolution to make patients first. Train new teams to make healthcare entities into consumer enablers.2. Pay for health, not volume of procedures.3. Find the right solution for the right patient at the right time. Yes, we have to personalize care.4. Select and educate physicians of the future—empathy, not memory. Leave memorization to the computers, and let physicians be the humans in the room.5. Ensure that every surgeon can prove competence. Never again, “see one, do one, teach one.”6. Do not build new inpatient beds. Shift the locus of health to the home, neighborhood, community, and family. Embrace retail medicine and telehealth.7. Always send a believable understandable bill.8. Practice integrative medicine.9. Defragment innovation and research—push universities, hospitals, and private industry to build creative partnerships for change.10. Build a truly integrated electronic health record. We overestimate technology in the short run, but we underestimate it in the long run. The computer will become the concierge of the future.11. Understand systems thinking—cost, access, and quality. You cannot fix one thing and hope it fixes the system.12. End healthcare disparities. If we embrace many of the disrupters above, we will have an unprecedented opportunity to shift how we encourage health and end the tyranny of the zip code.FiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Volume 2Issue 1Mar 2017 InformationCopyright 2017, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.To cite this article:Stephen K. Klasko and Editor-in-Chief.Disruption: It's So Much More Than Access.Healthcare Transformation.Mar 2017.1-3.http://doi.org/10.1089/heat.2017.29033.skkcreative commons licensePublished in Volume: 2 Issue 1: March 1, 2017PDF download

Collaborative Care Goes Global

Collaborative Care Goes Global

Project risk management: A deterministic quantitative technique for assessment and mitigation

The paper presents a deterministic technique for assessing and preventing project risks, by determining the risk of the Work Progress Status. Firstly, the performance of the input factors, namely the costs, quality, and time, are detected, that reflect the Iron Triangle of the Project Management. As each phase ends, the actual values of the input factors are detected and compared with that planned, and corrective actions are taken for considering the impact of the actual performances on the overall project. Thus, the current risk degree of the project is determined through the Weighted Sum Method. If it is higher than planned, preventive actions are taken, in order to mitigate the risk of the entire project. Practical applications of the technique relate to routine projects and those cases in which the schedule/costs/requirements are to be defined in the planning phase, and deviations are detected in the progress phase.

From Enlightenment to Cyborgs

The decline of the feudal system and the progressive rise of the medieval bourgeoisie to power roles and government functions, leads the West (17th century) to theorize and assume a materialistic, reductionist and mechanistic model of thought, based on a privileged, tendentially exclusive, relationship with Science (Galilean scientific method), technique and technology. This paper takes into account the historical, sociological, and anthropological elements (such as the unlimited perfectibility of humanity advocated by the French Enlightenment and the mechanization of the production cycle envisaged by English pro-to-liberalism) of this paradigmatic revolution, which more than others help us understanding the causal process that led to contemporary techno-centrism 4.0. It is highlighted that thanks to the interweaving between the ideals of the French Enlightenment, with its two souls (Naturophilus and Technophilus), and the Anglo-Saxon entrepreneurial foresight (proved successful with the Industrial Revolution 1.0), takes shape the Positivist paradigm, and with it the Positivist secular religion, whose affirmation and diffusion generate a stream of widely shared thought throughout the West, i.e. Eugenics, which radicalizes the most ambivalent (pseudo-scientific) and reactionary (philocolonialist) instances of Enlightenment and Positivism, leading to a series of crimes against the person and against humanity, which will result in the mass eliminations conducted, in particular but not only, by Nazi-fascism and Stalinism (two totalitarian regimes that share the same Positivist roots and the same passion for Eugenics thought). It is highlighted that the heart of the industrialization process begins to throb in factories, where the introduction of mechanical systems into the production cycle triggers the man-machine integration process, which soon becomes the ful-crum, the economic, social and cultural driving factor of the western civilization. It will be thanks to the evolution of the mechanical systems employed in the production chains and to the establishment of the Liberalist economic model, that between the second and third Industrial Revolution consolidates the alliance between academic, industrial and military (the academ-ic/industrial/military iron triangle). An alliance destined to play a decisive role in the two World Wars of the 20th century and in all subsequent warfare. The present paper therefore highlights how the two World Wars have exponentially increased western scientific and technological development, which once transferred from the military to the civilian sector, has taken off the Industrial Revolution 3.0. Thanks to the Second World War, the US academic/industrial/military iron triangle is strengthened and becomes the world leader in scientific, military, economic and technological development. The computerization of society and the development of so-called Artificial Intelligence are side effects of the new way of conceiving the integrated relationship between soldier and armament, matured in the US military sector during World War II. The soldier-armament automation model that emerged from that war experience, and the enormous technical and technological developments that have taken place, paved the way for the creation of man-machine hybrids (cyborgs) and for the robotization of society (Industrial Revolution 4.0), intended to be a complementary effect of contemporary warfare. In conclusion, the birth of a neo-positivist secular religion, inspired by a scientific and hermaphroditic divinity, called Universal Consciousness, is contemplated.

Why Were the Soil Tunnels of Cu Chi and Iron Triangle in Vietnam So Resilient?

At the peak of the Vietnam War, the network of tunnels in the Iron Triangle and Cu Chi linked Viet Cong (VC) support bases over a distance of some 250 km, from the Ho Chi Minh Trail and Cambodian border to the outskirts Saigon. In the early 1960s, the United States escalated its military presence in Vietnam in support of a non-Communist regime in South Vietnam. The North Vietnamese and VC troops gradually expanded the tunnels. Tunnels frequently were dug by hand in Old Alluvium terraces, and only a short distance at a time. Four major efforts were made by the US Military to locate and destroy these tunnels. These included Operation Crimp, a search and destroy mission which began in 1966 and a geological and soil survey approach was used to detect VC tunnels. Later in 1967, General William Westmoreland tried launching a larger assault on Cu Chi and the Iron Triangle areas. The operation called Operation Cedar Falls was an expanded version of Operation Crimp. Finally in 1969, B-52s started carpet bombing the Cu Chi and Iron Triangle areas and destroyed many of the tunnels. However, not before the tunnels had proven very effective in 1960s at hiding and protecting the VC during US occupation of the area. The nature and properties of the Old Alluvium soils were key to the soil tunnels being so resilient. Soils located in Old Alluvium terraces had high levels of clay and iron. Iron (Fe) leached from the upper soil layers (0 to 1.5 m) and accumulated in the lower layers (1.5 to 20 m) and became a cement-like binding agent. When dried the soil layers took on properties close to concrete, and were resistant to ever becoming soft and moist again especially around the aerated tunnel walls. The tunnels were dug in the monsoon season when the upper layers of soil were soft and moist but not in dry season. The soils were highly stable without any lining or support. After drying out, the soil materials surrounding the tunnel turned into concrete like material that could withstand adjacent explosive blasts.

A mathematical Model to select the Risk Response Strategies of the Construction Projects: Case Study of Saba Tower

Uncertainties and risks are always associated with large real world projects and may obstacle and threaten projects in some ways. Failure in accurately identifying the project risks increases the total cost and may cause social and environmental damages as well as casualties during project execution. The aim of this study is to develop a mathematical programming model for selecting risk response strategies for construction projects. All risk response strategies for the analysed project have been identified and a mathematical model is presented based on project iron triangle; time, cost and quality to obtain the optimal risk response strategy for the construction project.

Cultural sense-making integration into risk mitigation strategies towards megaproject success

Megaprojects have been described as extremely large-scale infrastructure projects typically costing over $1billion (Brookes, 2015). They are complex, take many years to develop and involve a multiplicity of stakeholders (public and private) to effect the proposed transformational benefits which impact millions of people (Flyberg, 2014). The nature of megaprojects depending on their management have either positive or negative impact on stakeholders and strongly influence megaproject success within the context of the iron triangle (cost, quality & time) (Atkinson, 1999). Consequently, social responsibility initiatives to better manage stakeholder risk and support successful execution of projects are often deployed. However, such initiatives often backfire and further challenge project delivery resulting in stereotyping and utilization of one size fits all approaches.This paper explores the implementation of megaprojects and their risk associated with social responsibilities (SR) in megaprojects through the lens of cultural sense-making. The paper propositions that a requisite understanding of the socio-cultural context of stakeholders through sense-making can act as a lever in stereotyping reduction thus improving risk management associated with megaproject success. The paper applies a problematization (Alvesson and Sandberg, 2011) perspective challenging underlying assumptions regarding existing risk management approaches in megaproject management and closely examining existing gaps as it relates to successful implementation.

Beyond the iron triangle: reflections of an early career academic

Purpose The Rethinking Project Management (RPM) research agenda has been influential in multiple domains. These include industry, education and research. In response to the call for papers for this special issue, the purpose of this paper is to consider RPM with a particular focus on the human side of project management. Design/methodology/approach Prior to joining academia, the author worked as a project manager for 15 years. This provided an opportunity for the author to consider the influence of RPM from three viewpoints: project practitioner; project educator; and researcher in project management. Findings Resources originating from project management bodies of knowledge and professional associations relating to the human side of project management are limited. This serves to emphasize the importance of the RPM-inspired research and its influence on the teaching and education of project professionals. The RPM agenda has also served to endorse a research agenda which is wide ranging and one that seeks to better understand and support the human element of project management. Originality/value RPM has encouraged researchers to consider project management beyond classical project management and the iron triangle of time, cost and quality. In doing so, there has emerged a rich and diverse body of knowledge which underpins the human element of project management and positively impacts the skills development of project professionals and the practice of project management.

Partisanship, leader evaluations and the vote: Disentangling the new iron triangle in electoral research

This article provides an empirical assessment of the causal structure underlying the core dependent variable of electoral research (the vote) and two of its most notable predictors (partisanship and leader evaluations). A critical review of traditional models of voting highlights the need to account for the reciprocal relationship between the main predictors as well as for the potential feedback stemming from the dependent variable. In the light of these considerations, a new ‘iron triangle’ of electoral research would seem to take shape, with partisanship, leader evaluations and the vote tight to each other by a strong link of reciprocal causation. Making use of pre-/post-election surveys from Britain and Italy, the empirical analysis provides evidence for a strong effect of past behavior on political attitudes. However, past behavior seems to exert its effect mainly on partisan attitudes, whereas party leader evaluations appear only slightly affected. The results point to the considerably weakened role of partisanship as attitudinal anchor of vote choice. Leader evaluations, on the contrary, emerge as a crucial component in the voting decision.

Breaking Higher Education’s Iron Triangle through Distance Education: The Case of IGNOU in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

<p>This article addresses the issue of access to quality postgraduate distance education. It was<br />developed within an argument that access to conventional face-to-face postgraduate studies is<br />still a challenge in developing countries. It argues that distance education can be used as an<br />alternative means of meeting the increasing demand for higher education in the country<br />concerned. This study used a case study of Masters of Arts in Rural Development (MARD)<br />program that is offered by Indira Ghandi National Open University in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.<br />Semi-structured interviews and document analysis were used to gather the relevant data. The<br />study established that distance education has a huge potential as an alternative and<br />cost-effective means of providing quality higher education in Ethiopia. The study suggests that<br />careful planning and integration of distance education into the national higher education policy<br />will enable effective and efficient provision of quality distance postgraduate education in<br />developing countries like Ethiopia.</p>

Praxis of Performance Measurement in Public-Private Partnerships: Moving beyond the Iron Triangle

An effective and efficient performance measurement is deemed to be pivotal for ensuring owners' and stakeholders' needs are being met throughout a project's lifecycle. To determine the nature of performance measurement in Australian public-private partnerships (PPPs), an interpretivist approach that utilized semistructured interviews was undertaken in the State of Western Australia. A total of 25 interviews were conducted with key stakeholders and it was revealed that there was a proclivity for performance measurements during design and construction to focus on traditional ex ante and ex post evaluations that were aligned to the conventional iron triangle: time, cost, and quality (TCQ). However, there was widespread consensus among the interviewees that the traditional TCQ approach was too simplistic to capture the inherent complexities associated with social infrastructure PPPs. In addressing this issue the analysis indicates that process-based lifecycle performance measurement that strategically places an emphasis on value for money (VfM) should be introduced into PPPs to replace traditional ex ante and ex post evaluations. It is suggested that this type of measurement can be integrated with a broader VfM assessment and a series of key performance indicators to enable the public and private sectors to improve their performance throughout a project's lifecycle. The empirical analysis provides the foundations for developing a performance measurement that can ensure assets are future proofed over their lifecycles.

Loosening the Ties that Bind: Japan’s Agricultural Policy Triangle and Reform of Cooperatives (JA)

The process of reforming the organization of agricultural cooperatives under the Abe Shinzō administration in 2013–15 reveals how Japan’s “agricultural policy triangle” still functions as a key element of government decision making. The triangle consists of members of the Liberal Democratic Party’s agricultural “tribe” in the Diet ( nōrin zoku ); bureaucrats from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries; and executives of the cooperatives. The article shows that while the triangle was important during the reform, the loyalties and links that had hitherto bound the parties in an “iron triangle” of vested interest in agricultural support and protection have eroded.