Iron Production Research Articles

Uncovering the relational upgrading of the iron product network in China

Iron is a crucial resource for societal and economic progress. How can the China's iron industry, having grown in size and gained an export advantage, seek partners in the industry chain to develop better growth potential? We propose "relational upgrading" across multi-hierarchy. Using a Three-Stage Least Squares approach, we analyze the impact of three key network centralities of iron products on industrial upgrading, based on 1995–2020 HS-4 coded product export data. Results show: China's iron product network is multi-hierarchy. Relational upgrading transcends export advantage enhancement and reflects jumps to higher at multi-hierarchy. Policymakers can evaluate industry competitiveness by monitoring the iron product network's hierarchy of upgrades. Degree and betweenness centrality have a significant "inverted-U" effect on the iron industry's upgrading, while closeness has a hindering effect. Upgrading relationships across multi-hierarchy consolidates the network centrality status of iron products. Some policies for sustainable development as indicated by the results are given.

External moisture enhanced synergistic conversion of biomass and iron sand for the green production of metallic iron

In this study, a novel approach combining chemical looping gasification (CLG) and direct reduced iron (DRI) was proposed for an efficient, sustainable, and green production of metallic iron by enhancing the synergistic conversion between biomass and iron sands via external moisture. In the process, the external moisture acts as a catalyst for pre-gasification of biomass at the early stage while iron sand, as an oxygen carrier (OC) and catalyst, contributes to the later biomass gasification, where biomass is used as a reducing agent for iron ore metallization. The effect of moisture on biomass gasification and roasting effectiveness was investigated, at a reduction temperature of 1080 °C, 10% H2O, and 80 min of roasting time. The total syngas yield was 84.13% and the reduction product with a metallization rate of 97.53% was obtained. The mechanism of synergistic conversion between biomass, external moisture, and iron sand was described. The iron ore and moisture in the initial roasting stage reduced the tar yield, significantly retarded the escape of hydrocarbons, and prolonged the high-pressure maintenance time. Thereafter, the biomass tar and biomass carbon were gasified under the action of oxygen elements from external moisture and iron ore, eventually generating CO and H2 with the final residual carbon being 9.73% comparing to the initial total C element. The reducing gas generated from biomass was used to reduce iron ore, ensuring a high metallization of iron ore and achieving efficient synergistic conversion of biomass and iron ore. Moisture and lattice oxygen of iron ore play significant roles in the gasification of biomass at the early stage. The formed metallic iron and moisture further promoted the gasification of biomass C in the subsequent catalysis. This mutually reinforcing and transformative approach shows great potential in promoting biomass gasification efficiency and reducing carbon emissions from DRI processes.

Numerical Simulation of Heat and Mass Transfer Behavior during Iron Ore Sintering: A Review

Accurate computational models of sintering behavior would assist to enhance sinter quality and are anticipated to play a role in yield prediction. Sintering is a vital process in the manufacturing of iron and steel. As a consequence, the primary objective of these models will be a thorough simulation of mass and heat transport during the sintering process. In this paper, based on the examination and integration of previous studies, the fundamental physical formula and chemical reactions of the numerical simulation of the sintering process are introduced in depth with mechanism analysis. Furthermore, in view of the current numerical simulation methods and sintering process technology innovation development, the studies on sintering numerical simulation are reviewed from different angles, of which the main methods and assumptions are discussed. Finally, the current state of sintering simulation including the numerical simulation of innovative algorithm and optimized sintering technology is discussed in detail, along with potential implications for model development.

Budget Impact Analysis of Ferric Derisomaltose for the Treatment of Iron-Deficiency in Malaysia

Introduction: Untreated iron deficiency (ID) can lead to severe anaemia, requiring blood transfusion, or increased mortality risk. Globally intravenous (IV) iron is increasingly recognised as a recommended option for patients. This study aims to evaluate the budget impact associated with introducing a new intravenous (IV) iron, ferric derisomaltose (Monofer® [IIM]) as one of the treatment options for the management of ID in the Ministry of Health Malaysia (MOHM) setting. Methods: A 5-year budget impact model was developed from 2020 to 2024 for patients with ID that require a high iron dose (≥500 mg), using the perspective of MOHM. The model was built with four external medical specialists, each with experience and deep knowledge of ID management, to support estimations on the future development of iron use in Malaysia. Results: Compared to the current market mix with the existing IV iron products (i.e., iron sucrose and iron dextran), a cost-saving of MYR 53,910 could be achieved with the introduction of IIM in 2020. The uptake of IIM into MOHM over five years is estimated to lead to an overall budget saving of MYR 11,837,524 over a 5-year time horizon. Conclusion: The use of IIM in place of the current IV iron products in MOHM resulted in a significant cost saving by reducing the number of visits required to achieve the targeted iron dose and the shorter IV infusion time with IIM.

Influence of Temperature Regimes of Synthetic Iron Smelting on Casting Production Efficiency

The purpose of the foundry is to provide the consumer with blanks for general machine-building (special) purposes which are as close as possible to the size of the future part in full compliance with the requirements. The competitiveness of these products is primarily dependent on the use of efficient and reliable smelting equipment which meets the necessary cost. The replacement of high-value ironworks and ironworks iron with steel scrap using induction melting furnaces (ICFs) reduces the cost of producing synthetic cast iron. However, this results in temperatures greater than 1500 °C, reduced lining stability and increased downtime of the smelter. As a result of the research carried out, a technology for the use of quartzite is proposed. Thereby, the purpose of this work is to establish temperature regimes for the smelting of synthetic pig iron, allowing the use in metal filling up to 70–90% of steel scrap; this leads to a reduction in the cost of purchasing bulk materials (depending on the brand of cast iron) up to 50% and, thus, increases the efficiency of synthetic cast iron smelting and castings production in general. After removal of the original moisture and the subsequent sintering of the manufactured lining, it provides the possibility of melting using the melting temperatures 1550–1600 °C. It increases the efficiency of the operation of the melting furnaces and eliminates the consumption of the ironworks and the melting of the cast iron in the blast furnace, as well as the cost of the lost alloy. As a result, metallurgical production will be able to reduce the volume of production and supply of cast iron for ironworks, which will improve their environmental situation during the production and processing of necessary raw materials.

The Impact of Charcoal Iron Production on the Landscape of the South Lakes, Cumbria (UK) During the Eighteenth Century Using Archival Material Combined with Remote Mapping Techniques

ABSTRACT The history of the charcoal iron trade in the Southern Lake District in Cumbria, England is well recognised, with activity controlled by a very small number of iron production companies intensifying during the eighteenth century. This activity, from the initial extraction of the ore, through the development of a transport infrastructure and the construction of furnaces, to the management of woodlands for charcoal production, has left its mark on the landscape. A wealth of untapped information is held in the region’s documentary archives, which provides data on the iron production companies themselves, primarily via account books and associated documents. These records include detail on the charcoal bought in—not only the dates and precise quantities, but the names of the source woodlands and even the names of the individual producers themselves. Using GIS, these sources have been examined in combination with remotely sensed data to provide new evidence of the impact of the iron trade on the woodlands of the Lake District. The results demonstrate that charcoal production was so vital to the iron industry that the woodlands were carefully and sustainably managed, the legacy of which we enjoy today.

International Trade in Outland Resources: the Mining and Export of Lead in Early Medieval England in Light of New Isotope Data From York

THE PROCUREMENT AND TRADE OF VALUABLE ‘outland’ resources was fundamental to the early medieval economy, linking upland, forested and coastal regions with emerging urban markets. Recent research has detailed the increased exploitation and production of raw materials, including tar, soapstone, iron and antler, in the centuries prior to and during the Viking Age, primarily within Scandinavia. Here, it is argued from new isotope data relating to lead from 9th- to 11th-century York that there was an additional, international trade in a valuable but non-precious outland resource. Lead mined from the North Pennines was exported across the North Sea on a significant scale, connecting the remote uplands of northern England with urban nodes including York, Kaupang (Norway) and Hedeby (Germany; historically Denmark). We argue that North Pennines lead was part of a wider early medieval English lead export industry that operated from at least the mid-8th century ad.

Mercury in tree rings close to emission sources in Austria.

Mercury in wood is an important pool of this heavy metal in forest ecosystems because of its relatively high proportion in the biomass compared to other pools. This paper describes the successful application of a modified methodology for stem disk sampling based on wood particles from stem disks from Donawitz (Styria, Austria; pig iron production), from Brixlegg (Tyrol; former copper and silver mining, copper ore processing and copper recycling), and from Gmunden (Upper Austria; cement production). The maximum mercury concentration in the stem disks from Donawitz (Hinterberg: 20.5ppb, St. Peter: 9.3ppb) was recorded in the early 1970s. Several maxima were obtained from the stem disks from Brixlegg: the first was in 1813 (149.9ppb), potentially even earlier, a second (37.6ppb) in the late nineteenth century until the late 1920s, and a third local maximum in the 1970s (9.1ppb), followed by a tendency to decline until the present. A stem disk from Gmunden in Upper Austria showed values of mercury concentrations indicating no increases compared to literature about background sites (≤ 3.2ppb). This method revealed trends in mercury concentrations in tree rings originating from several different mercury emission sources in Austria coinciding with information about industrial history (where available) together with a justifiable effort. We therefore recommend it for further investigations on mercury concentrations in tree rings and their changes over time.

First 3D reconstruction of a blast furnace using muography

The blast furnace (BF) is the fundamental tool used in the iron manufacture. Due to the difficulty of making direct measurements of the inner state of blast furnaces, we determined the density distribution of its internal volume in order to improve its productivity using muography. This is an imaging technique based on the differential absorption of a flux of incident particles, muons, by the target under study, similar to clinical X-ray imaging. Muons are elementary particles that have the property of passing through dense materials, up to hundreds of meters of rocks. Their relative absorption and deviation allows the generation of density distribution images of an object by tracking the number of muons received by a detector, before and after passing through a structure. The incident direction of the detected muons is reconstructed by means of a detector composed of 3 scintillator panels that we moved on 3 positions around the BF. With this technique, we obtained the first 3D image of the internal structure of a BF using a Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) inverse problem solving algorithm on muon flux data. We were also able to perform density monitoring of the BF and monitor some of its operating parameters. We distinguished the position and shape of the cohesive zone, a key element in the productivity of a furnace, validating this innovative measurement concept in the application to a BF and opening the field to a series of future experiments to gain both spatial and temporal resolution.

TECHNOLOGICAL FEATURES OF SMITHERY PRODUCTS FROM MOSCOW SETTLEMENTS OF THE 14th–15th CENTURIES

The article discusses the results of archaeometallographic studies of iron products from the settlements Myakinino 1, Myakinino 2 and Nastasino 2 – the largest archaeological sites in Moscow region. The authors identify technological patterns for manufacturing smithery products from these sites. It was established that these patterns differed significantly: for Myakinino 1 and Myakinino 2, technological groups I and III p-redominate, while in Nastasino all three groups are represented in equal proportions. The technological model typical for Myakinino 1 and Myakinino 2 was formed on the basis of supplies from two manufacturing centres – the urban and the rural one. The model identified by studying the Nastasino materials has much in common with the pattern characterizing the iron objects from the Istye 2 production complex. The authors use a specific example to demonstrate that rural settlements were included in the complex commodity exchange with urban and rural manufacturing centres.

Iron Belt Set from the Burials of the Plotnikovo Burial Ground (Rodanovo Culture, Perm Region)

The aim of the research is a comprehensive analysis of the objects of the iron belt set from the Plotnikovo burial ground. The burial ground is located near Kudymkar, Perm region and belongs to the 13th–15th centuries AD. Methods of studying the chemical composition of metals (XRF and SEM analysis) archaeometallographic and tracological, were used to conduct the analysis. The objects from burials № 3, 118, 180 were material for the study. These burials belonged to adult men. As a result, the authors found out that the elements of the belt set were made of raw steel with good forging quality. The rings and frames of the buckle were made of a rounded or square rod. Raw steel was a billet for the main parts of the linings. The conceived forms of the linings or their main parts were knocked out of the plates with a chisel. The tinning process was carried out after the manufacturing of the main parts of the products. Then there was an additional decoration of the products with the help of incrustation. The fastening of the linings to the leather base of the belt was carried out with the help of pins. These finds were the first and only iron products with tinning and incrustation that were found in the materials of medieval sites of the Perm Pre-Urals. Analogies to them can be found in the materials of Laishevo and Semenovka villages located in the basin of the Lower Kama River.

Correlation of Hepcidin with Hemoglobin and Iron Parameters in Iraqi Patients with Beta -Thalassemia major

Background: Thalassemia is characterized by genetic abnormalities in the synthesis of hemoglobin, leading to a decrease or missing production of one or more in the globin chains. Consequently, this disrupts the synthesis of hemoglobin molecules, resulting in anemia, which is a prominent manifestation of thalassemia. Iron is an essential element for cellular health and is involved in various functions, including oxygen transportation, biomolecule synthesis, respiration, and homeostasis. Hepcidin, a low molecular weight peptide produced in the liver, plays a crucial role in regulating iron homeostasis. Objectives: Study the correlation of Hepcidin with Hemoglobin, Ferritin, and Iron Parameters in Patients with Beta-Thalassemia major. Methods: The serum ferritin of all subjects was measured by the ELFA technique (Enzyme Linked Fluorescent Assay), Serum Hepcidin is measured by the ELISA kit, and Iron, UIBC as well as TIBC are measured via colorimetric methods. Results: The { mean ± SD } of Ages and Genders among Patients with healthy groups were not significant. The { mean ± SD } of Hb and serum levels of Iron, UIBC, TIBC, Hepcidin concentration, and BMI between Patients and healthy groups were statistically significant. The study results of the correlation between Hepcidin and other markers in the beta-thalassemia patient's group showed a non-significant negative correlation of hepcidin with TIBC and UIBC. while there is a non-significant weak correlation between hepcidin with Hb and Ferritin. and the results have shown a non-significant positive correlation between hepcidin and Iron. Conclusion: In this study showed a marked reduction in hemoglobin production and high levels of Iron and Ferritin concentration, while the concentration of TIBC and UIBC was observed to decrease in individuals with this disease compared to healthy individuals. This study showed low hepcidin concentration in ?-TM major patients compared to healthy subjects. 

An Archaeometallurgical Study of Medieval Knives from Kinet Höyük, Turkey

This paper examines the knives of the medieval period (13th -14th century AD) from Kinet Höyük in Cilicia, one of the most important areas of Anatolia for the history of iron production. The materials and production processes of 12 knives were revealed using archaeometry methods, such as Optical Microscopy (OM), Scanning Electron Microscope-Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometer (SEM-EDS) analyses, and micro-hardness tests. An examination of the relationship between the shape and size of these knives was undertaken, along with a discussion of the factors involved in the manufacturing techniques. Among the medieval knives from Kinet Höyük that were analyzed, the results of the study indicate that besides blades made entirely of steel or wrought iron there are examples of forge-welding steel to wrought iron in a variety of ways. The largest group of knives is composed of small blades made only of steel. A particular example of this group is a blade made of crucible steel, which was skillfully forged and heat-treated. The medieval blades from Kinet Höyük exhibit a direct relationship between their shapes and their dimensional proportions. A specific production method, however, seems not to have been chosen in accordance with a given shape. The dimensions of the knives were more significant, particularly when only steel or only wrought iron was used. Based on the historical iron-producing activities in the region and the traces of intense blacksmithing practices found in the medieval layers of Kinet Höyük, it is argued that these knives are remnants of a skilled metal production culture.

On transition to hydrogen metallurgy

The article shows that climate change is not only warming, but also extraordinary natural phenomena (droughts, floods, storms, tornadoes etc), which lead to significant economic damage. Climate warming is caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the earth's atmosphere. The main task is to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. An analysis has been carried out of international documents such as the Kyoto Protocol, the Paris Climate Agreement, aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere. It is shown that a significant amount of CO2 enters the atmosphere during the production of pig iron and steel, the data on the amount of carbon dioxide emissions from steel smelting in Ukraine and at «Azovsteel» iron and steel works have been provided. The article contains a critical analysis of the existing steel production technology, which is highly efficient but requires significant capital investment, fuel and energy resources, the source of which is the product of heat treatment of hard coal – coke, its carbon in the form of CO2 entering the atmosphere. Numerous proposed methods of steel production without the use of this coke are considered. One of the directions was the production of sponge iron without melting, another direction of coke-free metallurgy was high-temperature processes of obtaining liquid metal, that are carried out in one stage. The theoretically required amount of reducing agent at of iron with carbon monoxide and hydrogen has been determined. Methods of producing renewable gas by conversion of natural gas and gasification of coal are considered. The plans of the Metinvest Group management to develop a long-term technological strategy for metallurgical production taking into account environmental requirements are presented

FACTORS AFFECTING COST IN IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY: A BRIEF REVIEW

The iron and steel industry, which increases the competition between countries and directs the economic market, meets the demands of many sectors by providing sustainable steel production. The rapid developments in recent years have affected the costs of iron and steel products, causing problems in the sector. Addressing these problems will contribute to the development of countries and increase the competitiveness of enterprises. In this study, the factors affecting the cost of the iron and steel industry were examined and it was determined that the factors causing high costs should be kept at a minimum.

Intracellular biotransformation and disposal mechanisms3d cancer cells.

Magnetosomes are magnetite nanoparticles biosynthesized by magnetotactic bacteria. Given their potential clinical applications for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer, it is essential to understand what becomes of them once they are within the body. With this aim, here we have followed the intracellular long-term fate of magnetosomes in two cell types: cancer cells (A549 cell line), because they are the actual target for the therapeutic activity of the magnetosomes, and macrophages (RAW 264.7 cell line), because of their role at capturing foreign agents. We show that cells dispose of magnetosomes using three mechanisms: splitting them into daughter cells, excreting them to the surrounding environment, and degrading them yielding less or non-magnetic iron products. A deeper insight into the degradation mechanisms by means of time-resolved X-ray absorption near-edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy has allowed us to follow the intracellular biotransformation of magnetosomes by identifying and quantifying the iron species occurring during the process. In both cell types there is a first oxidation of magnetite to maghemite and then, earlier in macrophages than in cancer cells, ferrihydrite starts to appear. Given that ferrihydrite is the iron mineral phase stored in the cores of ferritin proteins, this suggests that cells use the iron released from the degradation of magnetosomes to load ferritin. Comparison of both cellular types evidences that macrophages are more efficient at disposing of magnetosomes than cancer cells, attributed to their role in degrading external debris and in iron homeostasis. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

History of blast furnace blowers.

The development of blowers is inextricably linked with the stages of the history of technology and blast furnace production. The amount of blast is one of the main parameters of cast iron production, determining the size and performance of the blast furnace. Consideration of the issues of changing the design and drive of blowers starts from the natural draft and wedged leather bellows. The use of a horse-drawn drive or a water co-scaffold made it possible to increase the amount of air supplied to the furnace. The important event in the development of blowers was the advent of a steam engine, which made it possible to ensure industrial steel production in the middle of the XIX century. A fundamental change in the design of blowers occurred during the transition from reciprocating machines to centrifugal machines ‒ turboblowers powered by a steam turbine drive. Various design solutions of blowers of the transition period of the beginning of the XX century are considered, on the example of the technical equipment of the blower station of the Donetsk Metallurgical Plant (the plant of the Novorossiysk Society). Modern blower machine designs and characteristics are shown. It is noted that the cessation of the increase in the volume of created blast furnaces is associated with the achievement of the capacity limit of blowers. It is noted that in a number of cases, on the basis of technical and economic calculations, the possibility of obtaining a higher level of energy efficiency of the process of supplying blast to a blast furnace is substantiated when gas-tubine installations operating on blast-furnace gas are used to drive a turboblower. Some increase in the efficiency of the blast furnace process can be obtained, by considering the operation of a complex of devices: a turbo blower, an air heater, an air piping system.

Increasing the Efficiency of Synthetic Iron Production by the Use of New Kit Lining

The production of synthetic iron castings in Russia comprises 50% of all alloys produced; therefore, increasing their smelting efficiency is an urgent task in the industry. This process depends primarily on the efficiency of industrial frequency induction crucible furnaces using acid lining. In the present study, the properties of quartzite, which forms the basis of such a lining, were investigated. An analysis of the proposed variants for changing the composition of the acid lining for use at temperatures of 1550–1600 °C was conducted. Following the preliminary temperature treatment of raw quartzite, which was then subjected to a sintering regime, we determined the conditions under which it was possible to obtain a phase state, allowing for the operation of the lining at temperatures above 1450 °C. We determined the use of an electrocorundum of two fractions as an additive to the traditional composition of the acid lining. The industrial testing of a new liner composition for the smelting of synthetic cast iron in an induction crucible melting furnace with a single steel scrap-metal filling was assessed, which required the use of an increased amount of carburizing agent. The positive results obtained can be explained by the study of the spent lining, which withstood 345 smelting methods of genophasic rent analysis. The results of the test are based on the results obtained in a study conducted on the finished coating of the product.

MATERIALS OF THE GOLDEN HORDE PERIOD FROM THE MULTILAYERED SETTLEMENT OF KITSIVKA 1

The materials from the excavations of the multilayered settlement Kitsivka 1 provide additional insight into the characteristics of the Golden Horde Age population living in the forest-steppe part of the Siverski Donets River basin. Over time, the cultural and historical communities inhabiting this territory were changed. However, people always chose to settle in the settlement zones which traditionally used the natural resources of the micro-region and its logistical features. A vivid example of this is the crossing of the Siverski Donets known in the «Book of the Great Map» as the Kaganski Perevoz. It connected the territories with different landscapes: the right-bank forest-steppe and the left-bank steppe, thus being on the border of two systems of economic management and, as a result, cultural development. At certain historical stages, this point required military control, as evidenced by the remains of fortifications built in the early Middle Ages. During the Golden Horde period, the ethno-political situation seems to have changed dramatically, and the nature of the ties between the populations of the forest-steppe right bank and the steppe left bank of the Siverski Donets acquires the quality of a cultural and economic contactor.
 The material and spiritual culture of the Golden Horde period is represented at the Kitsivka 1 settlement by ceramic and cast-iron utensils, iron and non-ferrous metal products (elements of weapons, armour, clothing, tools), etc. Of great importance for understanding the nature of the worldview and origin of the settlers of this period is the discovered inhumation burial which belongs to the male privates, with traces of a fire ritual of the IV period (Golden Horde time) according to the classification of Dr. Fedorov-Davydov.
 The settlement of Kitsivka I is the first site in the Kharkiv region containing the materials on everyday life and funerary rites with osteological remains of the deceased, and this provides great potential for further cultural and historical reconstructions of the Golden Horde period in the modern Kharkiv region. It is necessary to further expand the studied areas of cultural layers, which will allow, among other things, to obtain a more accurate chronological framework for the life of the Golden Horde population, which today can be roughly defined as the second half of the 13th—14th centuries.

Groundwater red beds in Holocene fluvial sediments as a product of iron and manganese redox cycling; Morava River, Czechia

ABSTRACTModern fluvial deposits can be affected by early diagenetic element mobilization at redox boundaries between oxygenated and oxygen‐free zones near the groundwater level. The visible product of redox transformation of Fe is the sediment colour. Distinct red and black sediment layers have been studied in eight shallow (<4.2 m depth) sections in the floodplain of Morava River, Czechia. The aim was to investigate the composition, origin, rates of formation and stratigraphic significance of the red strata using bulk‐rock analytical methods, radiocarbon dating, optical and scanning electron microscopy coupled with in situ (energy‐dispersive X‐ray scanning electron microscopy and laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry) geochemistry. The coloured layers, in places well‐cemented, developed in permeable sands and gravels above the water table, close to the boundary with overlying less permeable floodplain sandy silts. Their colour is due to Fe and Mn oxyhydroxides (goethite, haematite, todorokite and birnessite) coatings of framework grains. Black, Mn‐rich layers occur stratigraphically higher than the red, Fe‐rich ones. The coatings are a few‐hundred microns thick at maximum, often botryoidal, composed of alternating Fe‐rich and Mn‐rich laminae enriched in As, Mo, Sb, P, Cu and U. The coatings formed under suboxic conditions due to Fe and Mn oxyhydroxide cycling, driven partly by microbial activity, at the groundwater‐related redox boundary which resulted in the distinct vertical arrangement of the black and red layers. Being markedly enriched in As bound to Fe‐oxyhydroxides and exposed to fluctuating redox conditions, the coloured strata can potentially release As to groundwater and represent serious environmental hazards. Radiocarbon ages suggest that the groundwater‐type red beds can occur extremely quickly, over a few hundred years. It is assumed that, under suitable circumstances, this reddening can be preserved in the rock record, and represent a specific model for the development of continental red beds.