Iron IIA Research Articles

IRON AGE LEVANTINE POLITIES AND THEIR MATERIAL CULTURE, WITH A CASE STUDY FROM TEL REḤOV, NORTHERN ISRAEL

SummaryThe following article deals with the possible association of political entities with specific material culture. By referring to a test case from the southern Levant – that of Late Iron IIA (late tenth–ninth centuries BC) Tel Reḥov and its political affiliation within the context of the regional settlement system, this article discusses the methodological caveats and prospects pertinent in any attempt to archaeologically identify political entities. It further demonstrates how settlement patterns and material culture may reveal the underlying social complexity of the Iron Age Levantine territorial polities, and the ways in which political hegemony was practised among diverse communities.

The Four-Chambered Gate at Megiddo

ABSTRACT Work at Megiddo in 2018 shed light on Gate 3165 of Stratum VIA (late Iron I) and the six-chambered Gate 2156 of Strata VA-IVB and IVA (late Iron IIA and early Iron IIB). The disputed question of the number of gates which post-date Gate 2156 was only briefly discussed. Continued investigation of the gates’ area in 2022 assembled information for the existence of a four-chambered Gate 500b, described by the University of Chicago excavator as a construction error, which was replaced by the two-chambered Gate 500a. The new data is presented here.

Bronze Anklets from Ḥorvat Tevet (Jezreel Valley): New Light on Exchange and Identity Construction in the Iron I

ABSTRACT This article presents the results of lead isotope analysis (LI) conducted on four bronze anklets from an early Iron Age burial (Burial D/F3) at the site of Ḥorvat Tevet, Israel. The results show that the copper in these items most likely originated in Timna. All the known LI data from the Late Bronze and early Iron Age southern Levant is then plotted to demonstrate that Arabah copper dominated the region in the early Iron Age. The significance of these objects for reconstructing exchange networks in the early Iron Age Jezreel Valley is briefly explored. We then turn to discussing the social meaning of these objects. Based on a catalogue of all known southern Levantine burials dated between the Late Bronze III (12th century bce) and Iron IIA (9th century bce) containing anklets or bracelets in association with skeletal remains with biological sex and age determinations, we conclude this was likely the burial of a high-status female.

Strategies of Animal Exploitation in Late Iron Age IIA Ḥorvat Tevet (the Jezreel Valley) Reveal Patterns of Royal Economy in Early Monarchic Israel

ABSTRACT Faunal remains from Ḥorvat Tevet, a site located in the rural hinterlands of the Jezreel Valley, reveal patterns of a complex redistributive apparatus during the Late Iron IIA. This paper assesses a large assemblage of animal bones within inter- and intra-site comparative analyses. Inter-site comparisons to contemporary sites in the northern valleys of Israel demonstrate that the agricultural production of grain and animal by-products at Ḥorvat Tevet is unprecedented and went far beyond the site’s local needs. Further, an intra-site comparison reveals a hierarchical distinction in the consumption patterns between elites and the labour force. These results further reinforce the conclusion that the late Iron IIA Ḥorvat Tevet was an administrative centre of a royal Israelite estate in the Jezreel Valley.

Ḥorvat Tevet, the Jezreel Valley: a village and an Israelite royal estate

Ḥorvat Tevet is a small site located in the north-eastern margins of the Jezreel Valley. During the late Iron IIA (9th century BCE) a large, public, pillared building was erected on the site’s summit, with areas dedicated to agricultural processing and craft specializations around it. In light of evidence from the pottery assemblages, the faunal remains, and the various means of production detected at the site, we argue that Ḥorvat Tevet served as an administrative centre of a royal estate within early monarchic Israel. We further discuss the archaeological evidence for royal estates in the southern Levant during the Late Bronze Age and its meaning for the origins of royal economy in early monarchic Israel.

An Early Iron Age Moat in Jerusalem between the Ophel and the Southeastern Ridge/City of David

Excavations on Jerusalem’s Southeastern Ridge, in the GivꜤati Parking Lot excavations, have exposed a man-made ditch, some 30 m wide and at least 6 m in depth, close to the hill’s summit. This paper presents the technical features of the ditch, including the rock scarps that delineate it from the north and south, as well as an enigmatic installation composed of a series of intertwined channels. Through comparison with data from previous excavations farther east, it is clear that this ditch traversed the entire width of the ridge, creating a disconnect between the Southeastern Ridge and the Ophel. Although the initial cutting of the ditch cannot be determined, it is clear that by the Late Iron IIA, the ditch served as a moat between the acropolis—possibly including the Temple Mount—and the city. This continued until the Late Hellenistic period, when construction activities backfilled the ditch, leading to its disappearance from the cityscape.

The West Semitic Alphabet in the Early Iron Age

In the hypothesis presented by the authors, stratified, nonmonumental inscriptions and their radiometric datings take center stage for the first time. It is in the living script of these texts rather than in the artificial alphabet of monuments that the evolution of the alphabet in Iron IIA can be studied properly. A key take-home lesson of the work is the significant ninth-century transformations of the alphabet from precursive Proto-Canaanite to supraregional cursive, thence to the well-known regional variants. Under the Omrides, the alphabet in Israel is attested minimally. No Omride texts were recognized at Samaria, nor Baashide texts at Tirzah. The newly founded West Semitic kingdoms since ca. 900 BCE will have constituted the cradle of the cursive, while papyrus or parchment and ink were the cursive’s likeliest vehicle. Alphabetic inscriptions on monuments, including Byblos, all cursive-inspired, will only have emerged in the last third of the ninth century.

Between Israel and Phoenicia: The Iron IIA–B Fortified Purple-dye Production Centre at Tel Shiqmona

The history of Tel Shiqmona, on Israel’s Carmel coast, in the Iron Age has remained almost totally obscure since its excavation some 50 years ago. Recent analysis has revealed the site’s singularity—the only one around the Mediterranean that can be demonstrated to have produced the luxurious purple dye for half a millennium. This article is the first discussion of a central episode (three strata) in the site’s history. We argue that during the Late Iron IIA, the Kingdom of Israel, probably under the Omrides, replaced a small Phoenician village with a fortified casemate enclosure in order to control and institutionalise the production of the dye and other industries. These peaked under Jeroboam II, and subsequently the fort was ravaged during the period of unrest in Israel after this monarch’s reign. We discuss the historical and cultural picture emerging from a meticulous analysis of the stratigraphy and finds and address trade contacts and regional, historical and geopolitical contexts.

Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart, eds. Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives

Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart, eds. <i>Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives</i>

On Olive Oil and Perfume Production in Iron Age IIA Tell es Safi/Gath, Israel

ABSTRACT The statement by Maeir and colleagues ‘that production of olive oil was a central aspect in the agricultural production in [Tell es-Safi/Gath] region already during the Iron I and Iron IIA’ (Maeir et al. 2020, 129) is being challenged here. The authors’ conclusions are examined by analysing the Iron Age IIA devices of Tell es-Safi/Gath, facing the development of olive oil production in Iron Age Israel. Perfume is the proposed alternative product manufactured by the installations of Tell es-Safi/Gath.

Jerusalem’s Growth in Light of the Renewed Excavations in the Ophel

The archaeological excavations at the Ophel site between 2009–2013, headed by Dr. Eilat Mazar, uncovered, for the first time in the history of Jerusalem, layers with buildings—some of them monumental—that were in use throughout the Iron I, Iron IIA and Early Iron IIB. These buildings are of great importance due to their location on the southern slopes of the Temple Mount. In this article I review these buildings, the relation between them, their date and their function. I then attempt to reconstruct a picture of Jerusalem and Judah in these formative periods.

The Iron Age Complex in the Ophel, Jerusalem: A Critical Analysis

Excavations at the Ophel in Jerusalem have revealed some of the most elaborate Iron Age remains in the city. They are of great importance for reconstructing the settlement history of Jerusalem and are related to two major issues: the nature of Judah’s capital in the 10th century BCE and the location of its original Bronze and Iron Age mound. Here I deal with the characteristics of the remains and their chronological setting. Analysing the stratigraphic, architectural and ceramic evidence, I conclude that the construction of the western part of the complex cannot predate the Iron IIB in the 8th century BCE, and that the early buildings in the eastern sector should probably be dated to the Late Iron IIA in the 9th century BCE.

The Late Iron IIA Cylindrical Holemouth Jars and Their Role in the Royal Economy of Early Monarchic Israel

The recent excavations at Ḥorvat Tevet and the finding of ca. 260 Late Iron IIA cylindrical holemouth jars provided an unparalleled opportunity to study these relatively unknown vessels. This article offers a comprehensive analysis of cylindrical holemouth jars and includes a study of typology and morphology, alongside the analysis of provenance and distribution patterns. By shedding new light on these vessels, this paper provides the opportunity to understand and illustrate the economy of early monarchic Israel in a new and innovative way.

History, Economy and Administration in Late Iron Age Judah in Light of the Excavations at Mordot Arnona, Jerusalem

The site of Mordot Arnona is located ca. 750 m northeast of Ramat Rahel and on the eastern outskirts of the Arnona neighbourhood of Jerusalem. Few sites around Jerusalem present a stratigraphy and settlement sequence that includes nine building and construction phases, dating from the Late Iron IIA (9th century BCE) to the Late Roman period (4th century CE). During much of this time, and especially between the late 7th century BCE and the 4th century CE, the site was a small agricultural settlement. In the late 8th and the first half of the 7th century BCE, however, Mordot Arnona held great significance in the physical and political landscape of the area south of Jerusalem, serving as an administrative centre, as evidenced by its monumental structures and the dozens of stamped jar handles. In this paper we present a preliminary description of the site and the main finds from the monumental stage in its history, along with our initial conjectures regarding the role of this site, together with Ramat Rahel, in the history of the Kingdom of Judah during the last 150 years of its existence.

Mount Adir: An Iron I Polity in the Upper Galilee?

This is the final report of the excavations conducted at the site of the fortress of Mount Adir in two seasons separated by 43 years. In addition to summarizing the available data on the fortress, the study focuses on the broader context—the interconnectedness between the Iron IB settlement system in the Upper Galilee and the contemporaneous centres in the northern part of the country, especially in the coastal area. It seems that during the Iron Age IB a local political entity was established in the Meron Ridges—the ‘Upper Galilee Polity’—which controlled the entire Upper Galilee region. The fortress at Mount Adir played a central role in this entity and the ceramic assemblage that was found there indicates trade relations, mainly with the cities and ‘village-states’ of the northern coastal region. The end of the ‘Upper Galilee Polity’ was connected to the growth of political forces west and east of the Upper Galilee during the Iron IIA.

A Bone Projectile Point and Its Possibly Associated Workshop from the Iron Age IIA of Tell eṣ-Ṣafi/Gath

In 2006, we published in Near Eastern Archaeology a bone tool workshop dating to the Iron IIA destruction level at Tell eṣ-Ṣafi/Gath. We managed to reconstruct the chaîne opératoire of the production of this workshop and although we did not find a finished object, we suggested that bone arrowheads were manufactured here and that they may have been produced in connection with the Aramean siege and destruction of Tell eṣ-Ṣafi/Gath in ca. 830 BCE. In the present article, we describe and discuss a bone arrowhead from the same destruction, but from Area M in the lower city of the site. We suggest that it may very well have been produced in this previously reported workshop (or in a very similar one).

Heated beeswax usage in mortuary practices: The case of Ḥorvat Tevet (Jezreel Valley, Israel) ca. 1000 BCE

The article presents and discusses the results of Residue Analysis performed on 27 pottery vessels, placed as offerings in burials dating to the Iron I period (ca. 1050–900 BCE) at the site Ḥorvat Tevet (Israel). The results show that heated beeswax was used during the burial ceremonies and placed in variety of vessels. These results shed new light on burial practices of South Levantine rural communities. They also contribute to the growing body of evidence regarding bee-product economy in the Southern Levant during the beginning of the Iron IIA.

A Note on Olive Oil Production in Iron Age Philistia: Pressing the consensus

ABSTRACT In this paper we discuss two aspects of olive production in Philistia and the Shephelah during the Iron Age. Previous studies suggested that olive oil production became important in this region only in the 8th century bce centred at Tel Miqne-Ekron, and that the Kingdom of Judah was not involved in the production of olive oil in this region. Recent finds, at Tel Beth Shemesh and at Tell es-Safi/Gath, indicate that this narrative is in need of change. On the one hand, finds from Tell es-Safi/Gath show that production of olive oil was a central aspect in the agricultural production in this region already during the Iron I and Iron IIA. On the other hand, recent finds at Tel Beth Shemesh show that in the 7th century, the Kingdom of Judah was involved in the production of olive oil in the eastern Shephelah.

Iron oxide concretions as raw material for iron IIA iron metallurgy in the southern Levant: New evidence from Tel Beth-Shemesh, Israel

Recent discovery and analysis of a series of iron production and manufacture sites and installations in the southern Levant opened the door for a variety of important studies concerning iron metallurgy in the region. However, the provenance of raw materials used to produce iron artifacts in the majority of these sites still eludes us. Based on new analytical data the present study suggests that the source of iron worked in the 9th century BCE iron smithy excavated at Tel Beth-Shemesh is local and comprises iron oxide concretions that are abundant at a few locations in the close vicinity of the site, and could have been easily collected for processing. This suggestion further emphasizes the localized and idiosyncratic character of the Iron Age sociotechnic systems of iron metallurgy which conspicuously differed from the complex international system of copper and tin trade that characterized the bronze industry of the 2nd millennium BCE in the region.

Review of Grabbe, Lester (ed.), Israel in Transition: From Late Bronze II to Iron IIA (c. 1250–850 B.C.E.). Vol. 2: The Texts (LHBOTS 521; New York/London: T&amp;T Clark, 2010).

Review of Grabbe, Lester (ed.), Israel in Transition: From Late Bronze II to Iron IIA (c. 1250–850 B.C.E.). Vol. 2: The Texts (LHBOTS 521; New York/London: T&amp;T Clark, 2010).