Iron Concentration In Water Research Articles

A study of the sources, human health implications and low cost treatment options of iron rich groundwater in the northeastern coastal areas of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

The groundwater of the northeastern coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa is characterized by high iron content. When the iron rich groundwater is pumped out to the surface, the water forms a precipitate of solid Fe-oxyhydroxide giving the water a cloudy reddish color. This condition is caused by the interaction of Fe2+in the groundwater with atmospheric oxygen. Since this water is unfit for many purposes including domestic use, the local community's water supply is being highly affected. An investigation was undertaken to identify the source of high iron within the Zululand plain groundwater system, the health implications and affordable treatment options in order to make the water suitable for use. The results of the investigation show that the concentration of iron in the groundwater reaches 13mg/L. The measured groundwater EC ranges from 124 to 1060μS/cm, pH ranges from 5 to 8 and redox potential (Eh) ranges from +87 to −89mV indicating both local oxidizing and reducing conditions. The results further show that the groundwater in the area is a fresh water system dominated by a Na–Cl hydrochemical facies indicating strong maritime influences. High iron concentration in water increases growth of unwanted bacteria forming slimy coatings in water pipes and when consumed excessively, it can lead to the build-up of iron in the body resulting into iron stores (high serum ferritin) which may be linked to diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, cancer and kidney problems. High residual content of iron in drinking water is also responsible for the unaesthetic nature of the water such as the metallic taste, discoloration and unpleasant smell of the water. Anaerobic groundwater conditions and the pH range observed during the investigation along with the presence of ferricrete and pyrite rich layers are responsible for the high concentrations of iron (II). An affordable groundwater treatment method based on aeration is recommended in order to safeguard community health, avoid expensive alternative water supply schemes and improve the negative perceptions of communities towards groundwater

Multivariate Data Mining for Estimating the Rate of Discoloration Material Accumulation in Drinking Water Systems

It has been demonstrated that particulate material accumulates as cohesive layers on pipeline surfaces in drinking water distribution systems (WDS) and that when mobilized this material can cause discoloration and other water quality issues. This paper investigates the factors involved in this accumulation rate from real world field data. A data-driven modelling approach is adopted, whereby two machine-learning methods are applied for multivariate data mining based on the observed phenomena. The results highlight bulk water iron concentration, pipe material and looped network areas as key descriptive parameters. Such understanding and expressions are important for pro-active network management.

Sedimentation and aggregation of magnetite nanoparticles in water by a gradient magnetic field

Magnetite (γ-Fe3O4) nanoparticles are promising effective sorbents for water cleaning of heavy metal, radionuclides, organic and biological materials. A good sorption capacity can be achieved due to their high specific surface area. Application of gradient magnetic fields helps to separate the magnetic nanoparticles from the water suspension, which is rather hard to do using the conventional mechanical filtration and sedimentation methods without coagulants. The sedimentation dynamics of magnetite nanoparticles with sizes of 10–20 nm in aqueous media in the presence of a gradient magnetic field was studied by optical and NMR relaxometry methods. The gradient magnetic field was produced by a series of strip permanent magnets with B ≤ 0.5 T, dB/dz ≤ 0.13 T/cm and in some cases enhanced by a steel grid with sharp edges (dB/dz ≤ 5 T/cm). Dynamic Light Scattering in the water suspension with different nanoparticle concentrations (c 0 = 0.1–1 g/l) revealed the characteristic features in the aggregate formation, which is reflected in the sedimentation behavior. The sedimentation rate of the nanoparticles in water and in magnetic fields is higher for less concentrated suspensions (c 0 = 0.1 g/l) than for more concentrated ones (c 0 = 1 g/l), which might be connected with the formation of a gel structures due to a strong magnetic attraction between ferromagnetic nanoparticles. In 180 min this resulted in the reduction of the iron concentration in water down to 0.4 mg/l, which is close to hygienic and environmental norms for drinking water and fishery.

Effects of using arsenic–iron sludge wastes in brick making

The arsenic–iron sludge generated in most of the treatment systems around the world is discharged into the nearest watercourse, which leads to accumulative rise of arsenic and iron concentrations in water. In this study, attempts were made to use the arsenic–iron sludge in making bricks and to analyze the corresponding effects on brick properties. The water treatment plant sludge is extremely close to brick clay in chemical composition. So, the sludge could be a potential substitute for brick clay. This study involved the addition of sludge with ratios 3%, 6%, 9% and 12% of the total weight of sludge–clay mixture. The physical and chemical properties of the produced bricks were then determined and evaluated and compared to control brick made entirely from clay. Results of different tests indicated that the sludge proportion and firing temperature were the two key factors in determining the quality of bricks. The compressive strength of 3%, 6%, 9% and 12% sludge containing brick samples were found to be 14.1MPa, 15.1MPa, 9.4MPa and 7.1MPa, respectively. These results indicate that the compressive strength of prepared bricks initially increased and then decreased with the increase of sludge proportion. Leaching characteristics of burnt bricks were determined with the variation of pH at a constant temperature. The optimum amount of sludge that could be mixed with clay to produce good bonding of clay–sludge bricks was found to be 6% (safely maximum) by weight.

Experimental Study on Determination of Total Iron in Water by Automatic Discrete Spectrophotometry

A new method was introduced for rapid measurement of iron ions in drinking water by automatic discrete spectrophotometry. In the iron concentration range 0-1.5mg/L, the linear relationship was good and the correlation coefficient was 0.9998. The total iron detection of recovery efficiency was 99.94%±1.6% and detection limit was 0.006mg/L and precision of the RSD% was 0.35%. The results show that the method was direct, fast, stable operation and lower iron concentration in water can be accurately detected.There is no significant difference compared with the results of atomic absorption spectrometry methods.

Pyrosequencing Analysis of the Bacterial Community in Drinking Water Wells

Wells used for drinking water often have a large biomass and a high bacterial diversity. Current technologies are not always able to reduce the bacterial population, and the threat of pathogen proliferation in drinking water sources is omnipresent. The environmental conditions that shape the microbial communities in drinking water sources have to be elucidated, so that pathogen proliferation can be foreseen. In this work, the bacterial community in nine water wells of a groundwater aquifer in Northern Mexico were characterized and correlated to environmental characteristics that might control them. Although a large variation was observed between the water samples, temperature and iron concentration were the characteristics that affected the bacterial community structure and composition in groundwater wells. Small increases in the concentration of iron in water modified the bacterial communities and promoted the growth of the iron-oxidizing bacteria Acidovorax. The abundance of the genera Flavobacterium and Duganella was correlated positively with temperature and the Acidobacteria Gp4 and Gp1, and the genus Acidovorax with iron concentrations in the well water. Large percentages of Flavobacterium and Pseudomonas bacteria were found, and this is of special concern as bacteria belonging to both genera are often biofilm developers, where pathogens survival increases.

RESEARCH ON THE INFLUENCE OF AN ACOUSTIC FIELD ON PARTICLE COHESION IN LIQUID / AKUSTINIO LAUKO ĮTAKA DALELIŲ SUKIBIMUI SKYSTYJE

Iron is one of the most common natural elements. When iron concentration in water is more than 0,3 mg/l, it causes the formation of rust drain tag or changes the colour of the fabric during washing. Thus, the use of the acoustic field to improve water quality is a very relevant topic. Acoustic oscillations are currently widely used in various industrial sectors, including water treatment, metallurgy, chemical and food industry, equipment manufacturing and medicine. When materials are affected by acoustic fields, physical-chemical processes begin. Acoustic fields cause material dispersion, emulsification, coagulation and degassing (gas removal) as well as influence the crystallization and melting processes. Acoustic vibrations may also cause various chemical transformations such as oxidation, polymerization processes and depolymerisation. The utilization of acoustics to enhance water oxidation and precipitation of coarse impurities further extends the scope of the use of this physical method. Santrauka Lietuvos požeminiame vandenyje geležis yra svarbiausias komponentas, pažeidžiantis geriamojo vandens kokybės normatyvinius reikalavimus, todėl tiriamas akustinio lauko naudojimas šioms dalelėms sukibti skystyje. Šiuo metu garso virpesiai yra plačiai taikomi įvairiose pramonės šakose: metalurgijoje, chemijos ir maisto pramonėje, gaminant įrenginius ir medicinoje. Akustikos naudojimas oksidacijos procesui vandenyje sustiprinti, nusodinant stambiąsias priemaišas, dar labiau išplečia šio fizikinio metodo taikymo sritį.

Glacial‐interglacial size variability in the diatom Fragilariopsis kerguelensis: Possible iron/dust controls?

The valve area of Fragilariopsis kerguelensis, the most abundant diatom species in the Southern Ocean, strongly changes in size in response to varying conditions in the surface ocean. We examined the link, both in two iron fertilization experiments and in sediment samples covering several glacial Terminations, between size variability in this species and environmental conditions across the Antarctic Polar Front, including sea ice extent, sea surface temperature, and the input of eolian dust. The iron fertilization experiments show valve area to be positively correlated with iron concentrations in ambient waters, which suggests the possibility of a causal relation between valve size of Fragilariopsis kerguelensis and ambient surface water iron concentration. Larger valves are usually found during glacial times and thus seem to be related to lower sea surface temperature and wider sea ice coverage. Moreover, our results indicate that there usually is a strong correlation between larger valve size and increased input of eolian dust to the Southern Ocean. However, this correlation, obvious for the fertilization experiments and for glacial Terminations I, II, III, and V, does not seem to be valid for Termination VI, where size appears to be inversely correlated to dust input.

Groundwater Iron Assessment and Consumption by Women in Rural Northwestern Bangladesh

In Bangladesh, approximately 97 % of the rural population uses groundwater as a drinking source. In many areas of the country this water is known to have elevated levels of iron. The contribution to iron intake that this exposure provides, and the impact on health, are unknown. In the pre- and post-monsoon seasons of 2008, we measured iron content of household tube well water, explored local water collection methods, and estimated iron intake through consumption of groundwater for 276 women of reproductive age in a rural setting in northwestern Bangladesh. Groundwater samples were analyzed for total iron (mg/L), arsenic (category of µg/L), pH, temperature (°C), and oxidation-reduction potential (Eh). Participants drank [mean (SD); 2.7 (0.8) L] of water per day, all of which was collected from domestic tube wells. Total iron concentration in groundwater was high, [median (IQR) 16.3 (6.9, 28.2) mg/L], and variable throughout the area. Using this value, estimated daily iron intake [median (IQR)] was 41.1 (16.0, 71.0) mg from drinking water alone. The amount of water consumed was unrelated to its iron concentration (r = - 0.06; p = 0.33) despite potentially unpleasant organoleptic qualities of high iron content in water. Groundwater contributes substantially to daily iron intake of rural Bangladeshi women and currently represents an under-assessed potential source of dietary iron.

Simultaneous reduction of by-products of chlorine dioxide and chlorine using Fe(II)–Al(III) coagulant mixture

Ferrous iron has been considered very useful for removal of chlorite, a by-product of chlorine dioxide. However, a serious problem can occur associated with high residual iron concentrations in water after Fe(II) treatment, especially at weak acidic condition (pH 6), having a higher capacity of chlorite reduction. Simultaneous removal of chlorite, dissolved iron, and humic acids was achieved with a Fe(II) –Al(III) (1:5) coagulant mixture. Moreover, a significant reduction of chlorine by-products formed after subsequent post chlorination was observed. The by-products of chlorine dioxide and chlorine could be dramatically reduced by the simple addition of the coagulant mixture without the additional problem of dissolved iron.

Several natural indicators of radial well ageing at the Belgrade Groundwater Source, part 2

From 2005 to 2009, research was conducted at the Belgrade Groundwater Source (BGWS) to investigate the process of clogging of wells with horizontal lateral screens (radial wells). The clogging process was monitored via the kinetics of the increase in hydraulic losses at the laterals. A correlation of this process with the redox potential, the iron concentration in water, and the microbial population growth at the laterals and in their immediate vicinity was established. Research outcomes are presented here from a study of five wells where laterals were replaced between 2006 and 2008. Derived dependencies were later used to define the preferred approach to the installation and maintenance of well laterals at the BGWS. Results contribute to the study of well ageing caused by biochemical clogging.

Reducing the iron content in water used in dry-slaking steam boilers

Reducing the iron content in water used in dry-slaking steam boilers

A long‐term, high‐resolution record of surface water iron concentrations in the upwelling‐driven central California region

Seven years of observations of surface water iron concentrations in the Monterey Bay region of central California reveal a consistent annual cycle dominated by the injection of high concentrations of particulate iron each spring. A companion study of the water column near the upwelling center at the north end of the bay clearly indicates a sedimentary source for the iron. Local river discharge, during winter storm events, results in the deposition of a fine‐grained sediment “fluff” layer along the shelf. The initial rapid shoaling of isotherms at the onset of upwelling in spring brings water from the fluff layer to the surface. Concentrations of iron in both surface and source waters are then quickly diminished although upwelling intensifies, bringing the highest concentration of nitrate to the surface ∼3 months later. The concentration of a number of constituents measured in bottom water samples collected during the companion study strongly suggests that the rapid decrease in surface water iron concentrations is due to the depletion of the fluff layer following initial isotherm shoaling. The decoupling of iron and nitrate supply sets up the potential for iron limitation. However, on the basis of average Fe/NO3 ratios, we conclude that the region is not often iron limited. Iron limitation was apparent only one summer at the offshore station. Summer chlorophyll concentrations are highly correlated to dissolvable (unfiltered) iron concentrations, evidence in support of the role of particulate iron in meeting the ecosystem's iron requirements.

Microaspersores entupidos devido a problemas de ferro na água

Um dos aspectos relevantes a ser considerado no manejo da irrigação é a uniformidade de distribuição de água pelo sistema. Este trabalho foi desenvolvido com o objetivo de avaliar a eficiência da cloração com a utilização de hipoclorito de sódio na desobstrução de microaspersores devido à utilização de águas com elevado teor de ferro. Um sistema com dez meses de uso apresentava setores com vazões de 5% a 57% menores que a vazão de projeto. Foi feito o tratamento químico da água de irrigação, utilizando-se hipoclorito de sódio com 12% de cloro livre na dosagem de 100 mg L-1 e ácido sulfúrico, na concentração de 98%, para manter o pH da água de irrigação em torno de 4,5. O resultado indicou que houve aumento significativo nas vazões médias dos microaspersores em todos os setores avaliados e diminuição na variação da vazão dos mesmos com relação à estimada no projeto.

Release of Iron, Zinc, and Lead from Common Iron Construction Bars and Zinc Metallic Bars in Water Solutions and Meals

The use of iron pots has decreased the prevalence of anemia. To investigate the release of iron, zinc, and lead from metallic iron and zinc bars incubated in water and in meals. Iron, zinc, and lead concentrations were measured at different incubation conditions in water and in meals. The iron concentration in water was 1.26 mg/L after incubation with one iron bar at pH 7 and 100 degrees C for 20 minutes and in meals was 0.97 mg per 100 g of wet meals, rich in phytate, cooking at 100 degrees C during 20 minutes. The maximum contents were 7720 mg/L of iron and 1826 mg/L of zinc in vinegar at pH 3 and 20 degrees C after 90 and 32 days, respectively. Lead was released from the bars, but at concentrations well below the upper tolerable limits. In outreach populations, the use of iron and zinc metallic bars in water and meals could contribute to sustainable, very low-cost prevention of iron and zinc deficiencies, and home-fortified vinegar could be used for treatment of both deficiencies. Field trials should be performed to determine the impact that the use of iron and zinc metallic bars in water and meals might have on the iron and zinc status of population groups.

Effect of Drinking Water Iron Concentration on Broiler Performance

Many parts of the nation have elevated Fe concentrations in drinking water, and poultry producers are uncertain of the effect this will have on broiler performance. Three trials were conducted to evaluate the effects of Fe concentration on broiler performance. At hatch, Cobb 500 male broiler chicks were placed in Petersime batteries equipped with a nipple watering system. Chicks were weighed and randomly allotted to pens such that each pen had a similar weight distribution. Chicks were fed a standard corn-soybean meal diet to meet or exceed NRC recommendations. Chicks were allowed ad libitum access to feed and water. Weekly chick weight, feed intake, and water consumption were recorded throughout the 35-d trials. Soluble P in the manure was analyzed in Experiments 1 and 2. In Experiments 1 and 2, 4 water treatments consisted of 0, 2, 20, and 200 ppm supplemental Fe (FeSO4·7H2 O). In Experiment 3, the treatments were 0, 200, 400, and 600 ppm supplemental Fe. Water treatments were mixed on a weekly basis.No differences were noted in BW, feed consumption, water consumption, mortality, or manure-soluble P in any of the trials. None of the birds in the treatments exhibited any signs of flushing or any other intestinal problems. These results indicate that Fe concentrations in water do not affect performance or soluble P in broilers. Broiler performance was not affected by elevated SO4 levels or reduced water pH. Although Fe may not have a direct affect on broiler performance, this study did not take into account the effect that high levels of Fe or its oxidized byproducts may have on equipment function.

Redox speciation of iron in waters by resin-based column chromatography

Speciation of iron in waters is very important in aiming at the elucidation of biogeochemical cycling of iron and its role in the environment. However, the low concentration of iron in waters, the reversibility of Fe(II) and Fe(III) species and the complexation of the oxidation states of both forms of iron by organic matter demand rigorous sampling and sample-handling procedures. Also required are fast, versatile analytical methods that facilitate preconcentration and/or separation of the species prior to detection at extremely low levels with reasonably high precision and selectivity without altering the integrity of the species in the samples being analyzed. We discuss how most of these requirements can be successfully fulfilled by resin-based mini-columns and micro-columns. We also emphasize the problems associated with iron redox state reversibility during sample pretreatment before analysis using the reported protocols.

Influence of snow on iron release from soil

The concentration of Fe in stream water and groundwater was measured monthly during a whole year. The study fields were Ozenuma lake and Senjougahara peatland, which snow covers for more than 5 months in winter. Iron concentration in water increased during snow-covered and thaw seasons with the synchronized decrease in Eh and pH for both stream water and groundwater. In snow-covered seasons, it is hypothesized that supply of melt water and/or coverage with ice layers during this period could cause the development of an anaerobic zone in underlying soil. This study suggests that change in the amount of snowfall or in the length of snow season may influence the geochemical cycle of iron.

Recuperação de gotejadores obstruídos devido à utilização de águas ferruginosas

Desenvolveu-se este trabalho com o objetivo de se avaliar a eficiência da utilização de ácido fosfórico, de hipoclorito de sódio e de um produto comercial, além do impacto mecânico na desobstrução de gotejadores entupidos, devido à utilização de águas com elevado teor de ferro. O trabalho foi realizado na Fazenda Vista Alegre, localizada em Jaboticatubas, MG. Um sistema de irrigação por gotejamento foi adaptado para realização dos testes com oito tratamentos, sendo sete com aplicação de produtos químicos e um com impacto mecânico. Para os tratamentos químicos, utilizaram-se: o ácido fosfórico com pH 2 e pH 3; o hipoclorito de sódio com as dosagens de 100, 50 e 25 mg L-1 de cloro; e Reciclean com as dosagens de 50 e 25 mg L-1. Diante dos resultados obtidos, conclui-se: o tratamento com ácido fosfórico em pH 2 forneceu o melhor resultado quanto ao aumento da uniformidade de aplicação de água pelo sistema, apresentando o maior aumento nos valores de coeficiente de uniformidade de distribuição (CUD) e coeficiente de uniformidade de Christiansen (CUC); entretanto, com custo elevado. O tratamento com 25 mg L-1 de cloro apresentou a melhor relação benefício/custo, sendo o mais econômico e o segundo melhor quanto à melhoria da uniformidade de irrigação do sistema. O impacto mecânico é uma alternativa para recuperação de sistemas de irrigação por gotejamento em geral, com destaque para sistemas de cultivos orgânicos.

Modeling the global ocean iron cycle

We describe a model of the ocean transport and biogeochemical cycling of iron and the subsequent control on export production and macronutrient distributions. Ocean transport of phosphorus and iron are represented by a highly idealized six‐box ocean model. Export production is parameterized simply; it is limited by light, phosphate, and iron availability in the surface ocean. We prescribe the regional variations in aeolian deposition of iron and examine three parameterizations of iron cycling in the deep ocean: (1) net scavenging onto particles, the simplest model; (2) scavenging and desorption of iron to and from particles, analogous to thorium; and (3) complexation. Provided that some unknown parameter values can be set appropriately, all three biogeochemical models are capable of reproducing the broad features of the iron distribution observed in the modern ocean and explicitly lead to regions of elevated surface phosphate, particularly in the Southern Ocean. We compare the sensitivity of Southern Ocean surface macronutrient concentration to increased aeolian dust supply for each parameterization. Both scavenging‐based representations respond to increasing dust supply with a drawdown of surface phosphate in an almost linear relationship. The complexation parameterization, however, asymptotes toward a limited drawdown of phosphate under the assumption that ligand production does not respond to increased dust flux. In the scavenging based models, deep water iron concentrations and, therefore, upwelled iron continually increase with greater dust supply. In contrast, the availability of complexing ligand provides an upper limit for the deep water iron concentration in the latter model.