Irish Waters Research Articles

Spatial and temporal analysis of litter in the Celtic Sea from Groundfish Survey data: Lessons for monitoring

The Marine Strategy Framework Directive requires EU Member States to sample and monitor marine litter. Criteria for sampling and detecting spatial and/or temporal variation in the amount of litter present have been developed and initiated throughout Europe. These include implementing standardised sampling and recording methods to enable cross-comparison and consistency between neighbours. Parameters of interest include; litter occurrence, composition, distribution and source. This paper highlights the litter-related initiatives occurring in Irish waters; presents an offshore benthic litter sampling series; provides a power analysis to determine trend detection thresholds; identifies areas and sources of litter; and proposes improvements to meet reporting obligations. Litter was found to be distributed throughout Irish waters with highest occurrences in the Celtic Sea. Over 50% of litter encountered was attributed to fishing activities: however only a small proportion of the variability in litter occurrence could be explained by spatial patterns in fishing effort. Issues in implementing standardised protocol were observed and addressed.

The first taxonomic revaluation of the Iranian water frogs of the genus Pelophylax (Anura: Ranidae) using sequences of the mitochondrial genome

The Eurasian water frog species and their geographic ranges have undergone considerable changes in the last four decades, but the Iranian populations have largely remained unknown. All the Iranian populations of water frogs, despite their vast distribution range have attributed to a single species: Rana ridibunda. In order to understand the phylogenetic relationships and taxonomic status of water frogs of Iran, we collected samples from many populations across the country and used the mitochondrial DNA sequence variation. A data set with a final sequence length of 616 nucleotides was generated for Cyt b from 70 individuals of Pelophylax in which there are 422 invariable sites, 174 variable sites of which 123 were parsimony informative. In total, 43 haplotypes were found (Hd: 0.9752). The result demonstrated that, two major clades with strong support can be identified within the Iranian water frogs. One of these clades that include north western and southwestern populations forms a monophyletic group along with P. bedriagae samples from Turkey. The second clade consists of water frog populations of north and northeastern parts of Iran which in turn is subdivided into two subclades. Inclusion of water frog samples from adjacent areas showed that the second clade of our study is, most likely, a distinct taxonomic entity at species rank with its two subclades indicating two diagnosable subspecies for the clade. In conclusion, we suggest that two distinct species, P. bedriagae and Pelophylax sp., with its two subspecies, should be identified as water frogs of Iran. In Addition, another traditionally reported water frog of Iran, P.ridibundus, most likely should be excluded from the Iranian water frog’s checklist.

Seismic Survey Footprints in Irish Waters: A Starting Point for Effective Mitigation.

The noise footprint of a given activity is defined as the area where the noise from the activity spreads into the ocean at levels above the existing statistical ambient noise. The noise footprints of seismic surveys in Irish waters from 2,000 to 2,011 have been estimated using Quonops, a global ocean noise prediction service. Noise footprints are converted into sound exposure levels to evaluate the cumulative risks toward high-, mid-, and low-frequency marine mammals. The results demonstrate large variability in risk areas as a function of existing ambient-noise levels, season, survey location, and characteristics of the survey.

Assessment of Impulsive and Continuous Low-Frequency Noise in Irish Waters.

As part of the European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), member states are required to address noise pollution in the marine environment under Descriptor 11. This study aimed to provide a practical desk-based application of Descriptor 11 assessment, focusing on the main contributors of ocean noise pollution in Irish waters, seismic surveying and shipping. To highlight specific geographical areas subject to elevated levels of noise pollution, the proportion of days over a calendar year that seismic air guns were operational was calculated and the vessel density per 50-km(2) grids was determined across Ireland's exclusive economic zone (EEZ). Additionally, cetacean sighting data were used to determine the degree of spatial overlap between areas of elevated noise pollution and areas of cetacean abundance.

Spatial analysis of groundwater potential using weights-of-evidence and evidential belief function models and remote sensing

As demands for groundwater in the arid and semi-arid areas increase, delineation of groundwater potential zone becomes an increasingly valuable technique for implementing a successful groundwater potential analysis. The capability of using weights-of-evidence (WOE) and evidential belief function (EBF) models for groundwater potential mapping is tested and compared in the Ilam Plain, Iran. In the present study, multiple geo-environmental factors including lithology, land use, distance from river, soil texture, drainage density, altitude, curvature, topographic wetness index (TWI), slope percent, lineament density, and rainfall were used as inputs for both models. Subsequently, a well inventory map was produced using documentary sources of Iranian Water Resources Department (IWRD) and extensive field surveys. About 145 groundwater productivity data (with high potential yield values of ≥11 m3/h) were separated from well locations. Out of these, 101 (70 %) cases were randomly selected for groundwater potential modeling, and the remaining 44 (30 %) cases were applied for the validation purpose. In the next step, groundwater potential maps were produced using WOE and EBF models in GIS environment. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves for the produced maps were drawn and the areas under the curves (AUC) were determined. From the analysis, predictive performance of EBF model (AUC = 83.7 %) was better than of WOE model (AUC = 78.2 %). The results also show the capability of EBF model in managing uncertainty associated in groundwater potential mapping. Therefore, WOE and EBF models are shown to be an effective prediction models for groundwater potential mapping. The groundwater potential map can be helpful for planners in groundwater management and land use planning.

Wastewater reuse: potential for expanding Iran's water supply to survive from absolute scarcity in future

Iran, like many parts of the world, suffers from water scarcity and is located in one of the most arid regions. This is not only due to the low rates of precipitation received, but also due to the increase in demand on water resources for municipal, agricultural, and industrial uses. Wastewater reuse has proven to be effective and successful in creating a new and reliable water supply. Also, it can meet environmental needs, sustainable development, and a viable economy. There are two strategies for reuse implementation: (1) a future oriented approach allows structured planning within a broader wastewater management master plan and gives the greatest flexibility for reuse; (2) the available effluent quality from existing treatment plants defines the possible reuse option. According to the present situation in Iran, the second strategy is more reliable in preserving the country from absolute scarcity in future. Thus, the objective of this article is to understand the hidden comprehensive potential of reuse in three major categories: agricultural, industrial, and municipal uses, according to the improvement in the Falkenmark indicator.

Haemato-biochemical disorders associated with nodavirus like-agent in adult leaping mullet Liza saliens (Risso, 1810) in the Caspian Sea.

Betanoda virus is an emerging problem in several marine fish species in various geographic areas all over the world. In recent years, mullets stock of the Caspian Sea decreased dramatically and a betanoda virus like-agent was introduced as the cause of mullet's mortality. The main objective of the present study is to compare hemato-biochemical parameters in healthy and infected sharpnose mullets (Liza saliens) to betanoda virus like-agent. The adult sharpnose mullets (34 clinically affected fish+34 apparently healthy fish) were captured from the southeast the Caspian Sea from 2012 to 2013. All of the captured fish were 4 or 5years old. The main clinical sings of infected fish were lethargy, severe abdominal distention, abnormal swimming and hyperinflation of swim bladder. The results showed that the weight and total length of infected fish were significantly lower than the healthy fish. The results of histopatological evaluation and indirect florescent antibody test were confirmed the presence of a betanoda virus-like agent in infected fish. The diseased fish were severely anemic (hypochromic macrocytic anemia) and had a serious haemopoietic disorders. The anemia associated with a sever leukopenia, a significant rise of neutrophils and immature neutrophils and a significant decries of lymphocytes percentage. Total protein, albumin and total immunoglobulin levels were significantly reduced in the serum of infected fish, while the activities of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase significantly increased when compared to the healthy fish. These results suggested that the feeding of the infected fish to betanoda virus like-agent were disturbed and it could be cause haemato-biochemical disorder and mortality of the fish in Iranian water of the Caspian Sea.

Effects of seal predation on a modelled marine fish community and consequences for a commercial fishery

Summary We constructed a size‐ and trait‐based dynamic marine community model of the Celtic Sea/Biologically Sensitive Area, including grey seals Halichoerus grypus (Fabricius 1791) and harbour seals Phoca vitulina vitulina (Linnaeus 1758) to examine potential resource conflict between seals and commercial trawl fisheries. The model incorporates seal diet preference, population size and commercial fishery catch, with survey data to quantify ecological interactions between seals and fisheries. Total annual consumption by seals was an order of magnitude less than the catch of the modelled trawl fishery. Increasing fishing pressure reduced fish spawning stock biomass (SSB) much more than a proportionally equivalent increase in seal predation. For most fish species, quadrupling seal predation showed little effect on the predicted fishery catch. These results arise from relatively low seal abundance and partial niche partitioning. The fishery harvested a wider range of fish lengths and species than seals consumed. The fish community was dominated by small fish lengths and seals predated on these more than suggested by their calculated diet preference. Seal predation disproportionately affected several fish species not targeted by the fishery, but seal predation did not significantly affect the SSB of any of the species that constitute 90% of the total landings of the fishery. Synthesis and applications. Predation of fish by grey and harbour seals is unlikely to harm commercial trawl fisheries in south‐west Irish waters. This conclusion differs from those of some model‐based studies of other North Atlantic systems, demonstrating the need for ecosystem‐specific evidence in considering such conflicts. In systems with low niche overlap between seals and fisheries, the two are largely decoupled in effect, leaving fishing pressure as the overwhelming determinant of targeted fish stock status.

Assessment of emerging biotoxins (pinnatoxin G and spirolides) at Europe's first marine reserve: Lough Hyne

Active and passive sampling methods were employed over a four-month period, at a site off the South-West coast of Ireland, to characterise the occurrence of cyclic imines in the water column. The marine toxins 13-desmethyl-SPXC, 20-methyl SPXG toxins and pinnatoxin G were detected using active sampling from Diaion HP-20 resin. Seven water depths were sampled to determine stratification of the toxins in the water column using Solid Phase Adsorption and Toxin Tracking (SPATT). Both 13-desmethyl-SPXC and pinnatoxin G were detected using two different resin types; Diaion HP-20 and Amberlite XAD761. HP-20 proved more effective at accumulating the toxins, with a higher percentage of positive samples and a higher ratio of toxin adsorbed relative to XAD761. No temporal variation in toxin-quantities was detected, indicating that there was no change in density of causative algal species in the water column. Pinnatoxin G was detected more frequently from surface to 30 m depth, with a similar pattern observed for 13-desmethyl-SPXC occurrence using XAD761. No difference in the occurrence of 13-desmethyl-SPXC was observed between depths using HP-20 resin. This is the first reported incidence of pinnatoxin G in Irish waters and highlights cyclic imines as emerging toxins in European waters.

The ‘Navalization’ of Ireland: The Royal Navy and Irish Insurrection in the 1840s

This article examines the role played by the Royal Navy in the deterrence and suppression of Irish nationalist movements in the early Victorian period, particularly Daniel O'Connell's 1843 ‘Repeal Association’ and the 1848 Young Ireland Rising. The navy was seen as ‘encouraging the loyal and overawing the disaffected’ both in how it acted, and in how these actions were reported in the media. The article charts the Irish administration's growing dependence on the navy to guarantee internal security and undertake a broad range of counter-insurgency functions. These ranged from troop transportation to blockading, and from famine relief to coastal and riverine activity to suppress localized threats. It argues that attempts to socio-economically integrate Ireland with the navy were key to its potency as a coercive force in Irish waters. It also suggests that Ireland came to hold an increasingly significant position within the Admiralty's strategic decision-making process, concurrently fulfilling a dual role of naval counter-insurgency and home defence. All of these activities are placed within the competing frames of ‘naval’ and ‘gunboat’ diplomacy, but it is suggested that the domestic focus of Royal Navy activity in Irish waters means that the term ‘naval counter-insurgency’ describes their activity in a more comprehensive manner.

Seal depredation in bottom-set gillnet and entangling net fisheries in Irish waters

Reports from the fishing industry suggest that seal depredation in Irish bottom-set gillnets and entangling net fisheries has increased substantially in recent years. A dedicated observer program was conducted in a range of such fisheries off the southwest and west coasts of Ireland to provide the first quantitative estimates of seal depredation. Zero inflated negative binomial and Poisson regression models found positive correlations between depredation and factors such as latitude, depth, timing of a haul within a trip and quantities of gear hauled. Soak time was significant in the inshore gillnet fishery for pollack species (Pollachius spp.) but not significant in the deeper more offshore gillnet fishery for hake (Merluccius merluccius). Results suggest that soak times should be kept short in shallow areas while faster hauling speeds, and systems which actively deter seals from the vicinity of Vessels operating in deep water should be explored.

Genetic Analysis of CuttlefishSepia pharaonis(Ehrenberg, 1831) Populations in Persian Gulf with Microsatellite Markers

ABSTRACT The Correct cuttlefish Sepia pharaonis (Ehrenberg, 1831) is an abundant cephalopod in Persian Gulf and Oman Sea. Despite the commercial and conservation importance of this species, information on population structure and diversity at the molecular level in S. pharaonis is scarce. Seventeen microsatellite loci from other species were analyzed to study genetic variation in populations of S. pharaonis from Iranian waters of the northern Persian Gulf coasts (Bandarabass, Lengeh and Bushehr). Eleven of the seventeen primer pairs failed to amplify, whereas six primer pairs successfully amplified: four pairs were polymorphic and two pairs were monomorphic. All loci were significantly deviated from Hardy—Weinberg equilibrium (P < 0.01). In the three samples of Persian Gulf analyzed, the four polymorphic microsatellite loci exhibited a mean allele number (Na) of 7.5, mean expected heterozygosity (He) of 0.802 and mean observed heterozygosity (Ho) of 0.541.Weak genetic differentiation was present among the...

Climate Change and the Future of Water Management in Iran

Iran is a large country in the Middle East, which is an extremely arid region. Like its neighbors, severe droughts and population growth have intensified Iran's water shortage problems in the past two decades. Furthermore, climate change has the potential to impose additional economic and social pressure on it and all Middle Eastern countries. Thus, how future climate change will interact with socioeconomic and political conditions in the region is an important issue. In this article I discuss the influence of climate change, plans for mitigation of climate change, and projects of water resilience for the period 2010–2050 in southern Iran. I suggest ways to improve indigenous participation in crafting economic solutions to climate change, as climate change impacts directly on water resources at the local level. I also discuss how local level water solutions may affect regional and national water policy in the future.

Irish Osmundea spp.: Food or shelter for Aplysia sp.?

The Irish coastline is approximately 7500 Km long representing one of the most biodiverse and rich-species habitats in Europe. With only few studies conducted in the North East Atlantic region, Irish waters can be a great source of new and unexplored chemical diversity. Four different Osmundea sp., commonly found in intertidal zone, have been described from Irish waters. Aplysia sp., is a sea hare which has been found to be associated with Osmundea algae. This project is focusing on the isolation and characterisation of secondary metabolites from Osmundea spp. and Aplysia sp. samples collected from the shore of Western Ireland in county Galway. The ultimate aim is to compare the chemistry produced by these two marine organisms and determine whether the sea hares are sequestering the compounds from the algae or they are using the Osmundea spp. as a shelter from predators and strong water currents. Thus half the Aplysia sp. collected were allowed to fast prior to analysis affording an opportunity to sample the chemistry contained within the sea hares rather than that contained within the digestive tract. The algal and animal samples were extracted separately in organic solvents followed by purification and isolation of secondary metabolites by means of Medium Pressure Liquid Chromatography (MPLC) and High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Comparisons between the algal and sea hare extracts were carried out through metabolomics analysis using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS). Moreover, the structures of pure metabolites were elucidated by means of 1D and 2D Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.

Insights into the Trophic Ecology of Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Irish Waters

The stomach contents of 12 bottlenose dolphins were examined. Ten of the 11 samples originated from dolphins that stranded on the west coast of Ireland between 1999 and 2011, while the remaining dolphin was bycaught. Ten of the stomachs contained food remains, mainly fish bones and otoliths; two stomachs were empty. A total of 37 prey taxa were identified, suggesting that they have a broad diet. The main prey items identified were five gadoid fish. Also, four species were only identified from non-otolith skeletal material, highlighting the importance of including all skeletal material in dietary studies. Three distinct populations of bottlenose dolphins have been identified in Irish waters using genetic markers. Differences in diet were found among these populations, where their stomach contents suggest that these animals might be foraging in different habitats. Significant differences were found between dolphins stranded alive and those that were found dead where the former appeared to have been feeding more on pelagic species. Significant differences were also found between male and female dolphin diet: males had eaten a wider variety of prey items than females. Annual consumption rates for the coastal bottlenose dolphin population in Irish Atlantic coastal waters are estimated to be around 1,193.8 tonnes.

Predicting farmers’ water conservation goals and behavior in Iran: A test of social cognitive theory

Lack of water constrains the economic development of all countries in arid and semi-arid areas and is forecast to become an even greater problem in the near future. Given the complexity of the water scarcity problem, an emerging drought in Iran (the worst in 30 years) has become an increasingly important issue, making more sustainable water management a necessity. Government bodies involved in water resource management mainly concentrate on increasing water supply, while approaches to decreasing water demand receive less attention. Iranian water users have been slow to implement voluntary water conservation. Encouraging voluntary action requires an understanding of existing behaviors, and of how behavioral changes can be made. In this context, a study was carried out to identify the most prominent drivers of, and impediments to, water conservation, using social cognitive theory. A sample of 360 farmers living in western parts of Iran was selected through a multi-stage, stratified, random sampling method. Findings revealed that farmers’ intention to conserve water was predicted mainly by outcome expectancy and self-efficacy. Moreover, self-efficacy was the most important determinant of farmers’ actual behavior in conserving water.

Flood susceptibility mapping using frequency ratio and weights-of-evidence models in the Golastan Province, Iran

Flood is one of the most devastating natural disasters with socio-economic and environmental consequences. Thus, comprehensive flood management is essential to reduce the flood effects on human lives and livelihoods. The main goal of this study was to investigate the application of the frequency ratio (FR) and weights-of-evidence (WofE) models for flood susceptibility mapping in the Golestan Province, Iran. At first, a flood inventory map was prepared using Iranian Water Resources Department and extensive field surveys. In total, 144 flood locations were identified in the study area. Of these, 101 (70%) floods were randomly selected as training data and the remaining 43 (30%) cases were used for the validation purposes. In the next step, flood conditioning factors such as lithology, land-use, distance from rivers, soil texture, slope angle, slope aspect, plan curvature, topographic wetness index (TWI) and altitude were prepared from the spatial database. Subsequently, the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were drawn for produced flood susceptibility maps and the area under the curves (AUCs) was computed. The final results indicated that the FR (AUC = 76.47%) and WofE (AUC = 74.74%) models have almost similar and reasonable results. Therefore, these flood susceptibility maps can be useful for researchers and planner in flood mitigation strategies.

First record of the numbray, Narke dipterygia (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) from Iran (Elasmobranchii: Narkidae)

As a result of our survey in February 2011, a single female specimen of N. dipterygia was found in the tidal zone of Chabahar Bay and it was caught with a small deep net. The fish was transferred in a bucket to the Fisheries Laboratory of Chabahar Maritime University and kept in a salt water aquarium for further examinations. We witnessed the birth of 6 juveniles after 3 days. The female and her juveniles were kept in the aquarium for about six months and fed with live food. After that, they died and were fixed in 96% ethanol. The female fish total length was 172.02mm and weighed 18.21g. The fry total length ranged from 49.90-56.37mm and weighed 1.14-2.1.65g. The length-weight, length-disk length, disk length-electric organ length showed high correlations (r 2 >0.85), but the relationship between electric organ width and fish weight was low (r 2 =0.33). Although this species was recorded from the Arabian Sea and western Indian Ocean, this is the first record of this species from the Iranian waters.

The Inorganic Carbon Chemistry in Coastal and Shelf Waters Around Ireland

The wintertime spatial distribution of carbonate parameters in outer estuarine and coastal waters around Ireland is described from total alkalinity (TA) and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) data collected between 2010 and 2013. Due to predominantly limestone bedrock of their river catchments, the River Shannon and Barrow, Nore and Suir River system export high concentrations (>3800 μmol kg−1) of TA to their estuarine and inshore coastal waters where estuarine alkalinity decreases with increasing salinity. TA is lower in rivers with a non-calcareous bedrock, with positively correlated alkalinity-salinity relationships in both the Lee and Foyle outer estuaries. Winter pCO2 in the Shannon, Barrow/Nore/Suir and Lee estuaries is supersaturated relative to atmospheric CO2, while pCO2 in the outer Liffey estuary is slightly lower than atmospheric CO2 in three consecutive winters, indicative of a CO2 sink. Winter pCO2 is close to atmospheric equilibrium along the western shelf and through the centre of the Irish Sea, while it is a CO2 sink across the North Channel. While aragonite was supersaturated in most Irish waters, it was close to undersaturation in both the Lee estuary, attributed to its low alkalinity freshwater source, and Barrow/Nore/Suir estuary related to the flux of high concentrations of DIC from this river system. The seasonal impacts on inorganic carbon chemistry was also investigated by comparing winter and summer data collected between 2009 and 2013 along two transects in western coastal waters and along the western shelf edge. DIC was ~60 μmol kg−1 lower in summer relative to winter in the coastal transects and 39 μmol kg−1 lower along the shelf edge, accompanied by depleted nutrients and supersaturation of dissolved oxygen during summer, indicative of primary production. TA was generally higher in summer relative to winter corresponding with a decrease in nitrate, indicating that primary production dominated the TA distribution over calcification. An exception to this was at two stations along the shelf edge where TA was lower in summer relative to winter (51 μmol kg−1) and coincides with high reflectance in satellite images from a coccolithophore bloom at the time of sampling. While pCO2 was close to atmospheric equilibrium along the shelf edge during winter, this area was a CO2 sink during summer, apart from the stations where calcification was likely occurring resulting in elevated CO2 relative to atmospheric concentrations.

Abundance and diversity of fish larval assemblages in Iranian waters of the Oman Sea

A survey on the abundance and diversity of fish larvae along the Iranian waters of the Oman Sea, extending from Hormuz Strait to Gowatr Bay, was carried out in 2009 (before and post monsoon). Fish larva were collected by a Bongo net (300 µ mesh size) and temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, pH, chlorophyll-a, clarity, nitrate, nitrite, silicate and sulfate by oceanic data recorder (CTD) and Rosette oceanography instrument were measured. In total, 26 fish families were identified and their abundance calculated as 768 individuals per m 2 . In pre-monsoon, 9 families were identified with Pomacentridae as dominant taxon. But in post-monsoon, 23 families were identified in which Myctophidae was dominant. The Shannon index was calculated as 0.583 ± 0.31 in pre-monsoon and 0.865 ± 0.73 in post-monsoon. The result of Principle Component Analysis (PCA) revealed a higher diversity among ichthyoplankton in post-monsoon compared to that of pre-monsoon. The abundance of fish larva was correlated with chlorophyll-a in post-monsoon, whereas samples from pre-monsoon were more positively correlated with in nutrients.