IRES-driven Translation Research Articles

Abstract 2262: Evidence that the translational initiation factor DAP5 plays a critical role in breast cancer metastasis

Abstract The metastatic process is highly inefficient. Among the thousands cells that escape daily from the primary tumor only a few survive and posses the ability of developing overt metastases in a distant organ. Yet, metastasis is the cause of 90% of cancer-related deaths. Despite its clinical importance, little is known about genetic and biochemical determinants of metastasis and new therapeutic targets are desperately needed. During their journey to colonize a distant organ, cancer cells undergo a wide variety of stresses (hypoxia, anoikis or colonization) that down-regulate global cap-dependent protein synthesis. In order to produce the proteins needed to overcome these stresses cancer cells rely on alternative mechanisms for translation initiation, typically through non-cap-dependent means such as internal ribosome entry (IRES). DAP5 is a poorly studied translation initiation factor known to mediate IRES-driven translation of cellular mRNAs that include anti-apoptotic factors and others factors likely involved in stress responses. Therefore, we hypothesized that DAP5 is crucial for the expression of the disseminated cancer cell proteome and cell survival during metastasis. We engineered highly metastatic murine 4T1 cancer cells to express a doxycycline (dox) inducible system shRNA silencing of DAP5 (4T1 shDAP5). These cells or the non silencing (NS) shRNA control cells were grown s.c. in immunocompetent syngeneic BALB-c mice. Dox induction was started by drinking water addition 12 days post cell injection and tumors measured twice weekly. Animals were sacrificed 18 days later, lungs collected and fixed in 4% PFA. While no significant effect was observed on cell proliferation in vitro, silencing DAP5 significantly decreased primary tumor growth and lung metastatic colonization. Importantly, when the same tumor study was performed in immunodeficient animals (NOD SCID γ) the inhibition of tumor growth with DAP5 silencing was completely abolished. These data suggest that DAP5 likely enables cancer cells to elude the immune response. However in this model, DAP5 silencing impaired the metastatic process and significantly decreased the number of lung metastases observed, implying that at least one of the mechanisms by which DAP5 prevents metastasis is immune system-independent. These results have been preliminarily confirmed in human metastatic breast cancer cells that efficiently disseminate to lungs. We engineered them with the same dox inducible system. When tested on NOD SCID mice, a significant decrease in the metastatic burden was also observed upon DAP5 silencing. Our results suggest that the translation initiation factor DAP5 likely plays a critical role in breast cancer metastasis and provides new concepts for therapeutic strategies involving translational regulation and immunotherapeutics. Indeed, inhibiting DAP5 might be a powerful approach, as it impacts the whole proteome of the disseminated cancer cell. Citation Format: Amandine Alard, Fernanda Musa, Robert Schneider. Evidence that the translational initiation factor DAP5 plays a critical role in breast cancer metastasis. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 106th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2015 Apr 18-22; Philadelphia, PA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2015;75(15 Suppl):Abstract nr 2262. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2015-2262

Cellular Proteins Act as Bridge Between 5' and 3' Ends of the Coxsackievirus B3 Mediating Genome Circularization During RNA Translation.

The positive single-stranded RNA genome of the Coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) contains a 5' untranslated region (UTR) which hosts the internal ribosome entry site (IRES) element that governs cap-independent translation initiation and a polyadenylated 3' UTR which is required for stimulating the IRES activity. Viral RNA genomes could circularize to regulate initiation of translation and RNA synthesis at 5' and 3' ends. Interactions could either take place by direct RNA-RNA contacts, through cellular protein bridges mediating RNA circularization or both. Accordingly, we aimed to assess the nature of molecular interactions between these two regions and to evaluate cellular factors required for mRNA 3' end-mediated stimulation of CVB3 IRES-driven translation. By gel shift assays, we have showed that combining, in vitro, 5' and 3' UTR fragments had no discernible effect on the structures of RNAs, arguing against the presence of specific canonical RNA-RNA cyclization sequences between these two regions. Competitive UV crosslinking assays using BHK-21 cell extract showed common cellular proteins eIF3b, PTB, and La binding to both 5'- and 3' end RNAs. PCBP 1-2 and PABP were shown to bind, respectively, to 5' and 3' UTR probes. Taking together, these data suggest that CVB3 5'-3' end bridging occurs through 5' UTR-protein-protein-3' UTR interactions and not through RNA-RNA direct contact. The dual involvement of the 3' and 5' UTRs in controlling viral translation and RNA synthesis highlights the relevance of these regions in the infectious virus life cycle, making them suitable candidates for targeted CVB3 antiviral therapy.

A novel Bcr-Abl-mTOR-eIF4A axis regulates IRES-mediated translation of LEF-1.

Internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) in cellular mRNAs direct expression of growth-promoting factors through an alternative translation mechanism that has yet to be fully defined. Lymphoid enhancer factor-1 (LEF-1), a Wnt-mediating transcription factor important for cell survival and metastasis in cancer, is produced via IRES-directed translation, and its mRNA is frequently upregulated in malignancies, including chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML). In this study, we determined that LEF1 expression is regulated by Bcr-Abl, the oncogenic protein that drives haematopoietic cell transformation to CML. We have previously shown that the LEF1 5′ untranslated region recruits a complex of proteins to its IRES, including the translation initiation factor eIF4A. In this report, we use two small molecule inhibitors, PP242 (dual mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) kinase inhibitor) and hippuristanol (eIF4A inhibitor), to define IRES regulation via a Bcr-Abl–mTOR–eIF4A axis in CML cell lines and primary patient leukaemias. We found that LEF1 and other IRESs are uniquely sensitive to the activities of Bcr-Abl/mTOR. Most notably, we discovered that eIF4A, an RNA helicase, elicits potent non-canonical effects on the LEF1 IRES. Hippuristanol inhibition of eIF4A stalls translation of IRES mRNA and triggers dissociation from polyribosomes. We propose that a combination drug strategy which targets mTOR and IRES-driven translation disrupts key factors that contribute to growth and proliferation in CML.

G.P.96 : Dose escalation studies of rAAV9 U7snRNA targeting exon 2 show highly efficient skipping in the Dup2 mouse

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is a lethal X-linked disorder caused by truncating mutations in the <i>DMD</i> gene which result in an absence of the dystrophin protein. However, deletion mutations that preserve an open reading frame, lead to an internally truncated functional dystrophin which is associated with the milder Becker Muscular Dystrophy (BMD). This observation as led to exon-skipping therapies in DMD patients to restore the reading frame and generate a BMD phenotype. Our group has recently shown that mutations in the 5^′ exons of the <i>DMD</i> gene that disrupt the open reading frame (ORF) induce expression of a functional N-truncated dystrophin via IRES-driven translation initiation within exon 6. We have previously shown that the exon 5 IRES can be activated by disruption of the ORF by AAV9. U7snRNA-mediated skipping of exon 2 by intramuscular (IM) or intravascular (IV) injection. We have now extended those studies to address the minimal efficacious dose (MED), a prerequisite for clinical development. To assess dose ranging with IM delivery, TA (tibialis anterior) injections were performed at 5 different doses, ranging from 1.1×10¹⁰ to 1.1×10¹² total vector genomes (vg) in half-log steps (<i>N</i>=6 TAs per dose). A gradient of exon 2 exclusion was seen by RT-PCR at all doses, but high levels of properly localized dystrophin expression were seen at 3.5×10¹¹vg and above. Experiments to determine the correction of TA physiology at this dose are underway. Similarly, dose ranging experiments using IV tail vein injections with 5 doses (<i>N</i>=3 per dose) ranging from 1×10¹² to 1×10¹⁴vg/kg are underway, and results of both protein expression and physiology studies will be presented. Our results show that U7snRNA-mediated exon skipping in Dup2 is both titratable and highly efficient. The establishment of a IV MED for this vector will allow planning of IND-enabling GLP toxicology studies.

HIV-1 transcripts use IRES-initiation under conditions where Cap-dependent translation is restricted by poliovirus 2A protease.

The 30 different species of mRNAs synthesized during the HIV-1 replication cycle are all capped and polyadenilated. Internal ribosome entry sites have been recognized in the 5′ untranslated region of some mRNA species of HIV-1, which would contribute to an alternative mechanism of initiation of mRNA translation. However, the Cap-dependent translation is assumed to be the main mechanism driving the initiation of HIV-1 protein synthesis. In this work, we describe a cell system in which lower to higher levels of transient expression of the poliovirus 2A protease strongly inhibited cellular Cap-dependent translation with no toxic effect to the cells during a 72-hour time frame. In this system, the synthesis of HIV-1 proteins was inhibited in a temporal dose-dependent way. Higher levels of 2A protease expression severely inhibited HIV-1 protein synthesis during the first 24 hours of infection consequently inhibiting viral production and infectivity. Intermediate to lower levels of 2A Protease expression caused the inhibition of viral protein synthesis only during the first 48 hours of viral replication. After this period both protein synthesis and viral release were recovered to the control levels. However, the infectivity of viral progeny was still partially inhibited. These results indicate that two mechanisms of mRNA translation initiation contribute to the synthesis of HIV-1 proteins; during the first 24–48 hours of viral replication HIV-1 protein synthesis is strongly dependent on Cap-initiation, while at later time points IRES-driven translation initiation is sufficient to produce high amounts of viral particles.

The P body protein LSm1 contributes to stimulation of hepatitis C virus translation, but not replication, by microRNA-122

The P body protein LSm1 stimulates translation and replication of hepatitis C virus (HCV). As the liver-specific microRNA-122 (miR-122) is required for HCV replication and is associated with P bodies, we investigated whether regulation of HCV by LSm1 involves miR-122. Here, we demonstrate that LSm1 contributes to activation of HCV internal ribosome entry site (IRES)-driven translation by miR-122. This role for LSm1 is specialized for miR-122 translation activation, as LSm1 depletion does not affect the repressive function of miR-122 at 3′ untranslated region (UTR) sites, or miR-122–mediated cleavage at a perfectly complementary site. We find that LSm1 does not influence recruitment of the microRNA (miRNA)-induced silencing complex to the HCV 5′UTR, implying that it regulates miR-122 function subsequent to target binding. In contrast to the interplay between miR-122 and LSm1 in translation, we find that LSm1 is not required for miR-122 to stimulate HCV replication, suggesting that miR-122 regulation of HCV translation and replication have different requirements. For the first time, we have identified a protein factor that specifically contributes to activation of HCV IRES-driven translation by miR-122, but not to other activities of the miRNA. Our results enhance understanding of the mechanisms by which miR-122 and LSm1 regulate HCV.

Structural Analysis of the DAP5 MIF4G Domain and Its Interaction with eIF4A

Death-associated protein 5 (DAP5/p97) is a homolog of the eukaryotic initiation factor 4G (eIF4G) that promotes the IRES-driven translation of multiple cellular mRNAs. Central to its function is the middle domain (MIF4G), which recruits the RNA helicase eIF4A. The middle domain of eIF4G consists of tandem HEAT repeats that coalesce to form a solenoid-type structure. Here, we report the crystal structure of the DAP5 MIF4G domain. Its overall fold is very similar to that of eIF4G; however, significant conformational variations impart distinct surface properties that could explain the observed differences in IRES binding between the two proteins. Interestingly, quantitative analysis of the DAP5-eIF4A interaction using isothermal titration calorimetry reveals a 10-fold lower affinity than with the eIF4G-eIF4A interaction that appears to affect their ability to stimulate eIF4A RNA unwinding activity invitro. This difference in stability of the complex may have functional implications in selecting the mode of translation initiation.

A cis-Acting Element Present within the gag Open Reading Frame Negatively Impacts on the Activity of the HIV-1 IRES

Translation initiation from the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) mRNA can occur through a cap or an IRES dependent mechanism. Cap-dependent translation initiation of the HIV-1 mRNA can be inhibited by the instability element (INS)-1, a cis-acting regulatory element present within the gag open reading frame (ORF). In this study we evaluated the impact of the INS-1 on HIV-1 IRES-mediated translation initiation. Using heterologous bicistronic mRNAs, we show that the INS-1 negatively impact on HIV-1 IRES-driven translation in in vitro and in cell-based experiments. Additionally, our results show that the inhibitory effect of the INS-1 is not general to all IRESes since it does not hinder translation driven by the HCV IRES. The inhibition by the INS-1 was partially rescued in cells by the overexpression of the viral Rev protein or hnRNPA1.

Enterovirus 71 Infection Cleaves a Negative Regulator for Viral Internal Ribosomal Entry Site-Driven Translation

Far-upstream element-binding protein 2 (FBP2) is an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES) trans-acting factor (ITAF) that negatively regulates enterovirus 71 (EV71) translation. This study shows that EV71 infection cleaved FBP2. Live EV71 and the EV71 replicon (but not UV-inactivated virus particles) induced FBP2 cleavage, suggesting that viral replication results in FBP2 cleavage. The results also showed that virus-induced proteasome, autophagy, and caspase activity co-contribute to EV71-induced FBP2 cleavage. Using FLAG-fused FBP2, we mapped the potential cleavage fragments of FBP2 in infected cells. We also found that FBP2 altered its function when its carboxyl terminus was cleaved. This study presents a mechanism for virus-induced cellular events to cleave a negative regulator for viral IRES-driven translation.

The translation initiation factor DAP5 promotes IRES-driven translation of p53 mRNA

Translational regulation of the p53 mRNA can determine the ratio between p53 and its N-terminal truncated isoforms and therefore has a significant role in determining p53-regulated signaling pathways. Although its importance in cell fate decisions has been demonstrated repeatedly, little is known about the regulatory mechanisms that determine this ratio. Two internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) residing within the 5'UTR and the coding sequence of p53 mRNA drive the translation of full-length p53 and Δ40p53 isoform, respectively. Here, we report that DAP5, a translation initiation factor shown to positively regulate the translation of various IRES containing mRNAs, promotes IRES-driven translation of p53 mRNA. Upon DAP5 depletion, p53 and Δ40p53 protein levels were decreased, with a greater effect on the N-terminal truncated isoform. Functional analysis using bicistronic vectors driving the expression of a reporter gene from each of these two IRESs indicated that DAP5 preferentially promotes translation from the second IRES residing in the coding sequence. Furthermore, p53 mRNA expressed from a plasmid carrying this second IRES was selectively shifted to lighter polysomes upon DAP5 knockdown. Consequently, Δ40p53 protein levels and the subsequent transcriptional activation of the 14-3-3σ gene, a known target of Δ40p53, were strongly reduced. In addition, we show here that DAP5 interacts with p53 IRES elements in in vitro and in vivo binding studies, proving for the first time that DAP5 directly binds a target mRNA. Thus, through its ability to regulate IRES-dependent translation of the p53 mRNA, DAP5 may control the ratio between different p53 isoforms encoded by a single mRNA.

Phosphorylation of eIF2α is responsible for the failure of the picornavirus internal ribosome entry site to direct translation from Sindbis virus replicons

Translation directed by the poliovirus (PV) or encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) internal ribosome entry site (IRES) is very inefficient when expressed from Sindbis virus (SV) replicons. This inhibition can be rescued by co-expression of PV 2A protease (2A(pro)). Inhibition correlates with the extensive phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) 2α induced by SV replication. Confirmation that PV or EMCV IRES-driven translation can function when eIF2α is not phosphorylated was obtained in dsRNA-activated protein kinase knockout mouse embryonic fibroblasts (PKR(-/-) MEFs), where SV replication cannot induce eIF2α phosphorylation, and in variant S51A MEFs that express an unphosphorylatable eIF2α. In these cells, PV or EMCV IRES-dependent translation operated more efficiently than in wild-type MEFs. However, this translation was potently blocked when eIF2α was phosphorylated by the addition of thapsigargin to PKR(-/-) MEFs. In addition, when wild-type eIF2α was expressed in S51A MEFs or PKR was expressed in PKR(-/-) MEFs, PV IRES-dependent translation decreased. In both cases, the decrease in PV IRES-dependent translation correlated with the phosphorylation of eIF2α. Notably, PV 2A(pro) expression rescued PV IRES-driven translation in thapsigargin-treated PKR(-/-) MEFs. Taken together, these results demonstrated that PV IRES-driven translation can take place from SV replicons if eIF2α remains unphosphorylated. Remarkably, PV IRES-dependent translation was fully functional in this system when PV 2A(pro) was present, even if eIF2α was phosphorylated.

Translation Directed by Hepatitis A Virus IRES in the Absence of Active eIF4F Complex and eIF2

Translation directed by several picornavirus IRES elements can usually take place after cleavage of eIF4G by picornavirus proteases 2Apro or Lpro. The hepatitis A virus (HAV) IRES is thought to be an exception to this rule because it requires intact eIF4F complex for translation. In line with previous results we report that poliovirus (PV) 2Apro strongly blocks protein synthesis directed by HAV IRES. However, in contrast to previous findings we now demonstrate that eIF4G cleavage by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) Lpro strongly stimulates HAV IRES-driven translation. Thus, this is the first observation that 2Apro and Lpro exhibit opposite effects to what was previously thought to be the case in HAV IRES. This effect has been observed both in hamster BHK and human hepatoma Huh7 cells. In addition, this stimulation of translation is also observed in cell free systems after addition of purified Lpro. Notably, in presence of this FMDV protease, translation directed by HAV IRES takes place when eIF2α has been inactivated by phosphorylation. Our present findings clearly demonstrate that protein synthesis directed by HAV IRES can occur when eIF4G has been cleaved and after inactivation of eIF2. Therefore, translation directed by HAV IRES without intact eIF4G and active eIF2 is similar to that observed with other picornavirus IRESs.

Automated High-Throughput RNAi Screening in Human Cells Combined with Reporter mRNA Transfection to Identify Novel Regulators of Translation

Proteins that promote angiogenesis, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), are major targets for cancer therapy. Accordingly, proteins that specifically activate expression of factors like VEGF are potential alternative therapeutic targets and may help to combat evasive resistance to angiogenesis inhibitors. VEGF mRNA contains two internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) that enable selective activation of VEGF protein synthesis under hypoxic conditions that trigger angiogenesis. To identify novel regulators of VEGF IRES-driven translation in human cells, we have developed a high-throughput screening approach that combines siRNA treatment with transfection of a VEGF-IRES reporter mRNA. We identified the kinase MAPK3 as a novel positive regulator of VEGF IRES-driven translation and have validated its regulatory effect on endogenous VEGF. Our automated method is scalable and readily adapted for use with other mRNA regulatory elements. Consequently, it should be a generally useful approach for high-throughput identification of novel regulators of mRNA translation.

Translation without eIF2 Promoted by Poliovirus 2A Protease

Poliovirus RNA utilizes eIF2 for the initiation of translation in cell free systems. Remarkably, we now describe that poliovirus translation takes place at late times of infection when eIF2 is inactivated by phosphorylation. By contrast, translation directed by poliovirus RNA is blocked when eIF2 is inactivated at earlier times. Thus, poliovirus RNA translation exhibits a dual mechanism for the initiation of protein synthesis as regards to the requirement for eIF2. Analysis of individual poliovirus non-structural proteins indicates that the presence of 2Apro alone is sufficient to provide eIF2 independence for IRES-driven translation. This effect is not observed with a 2Apro variant unable to cleave eIF4G. The level of 2Apro synthesized in culture cells is crucial for obtaining eIF2 independence. Expression of the N-or C-terminus fragments of eIF4G did not stimulate IRES-driven translation, nor provide eIF2 independence, consistent with the idea that the presence of 2Apro at high concentrations is necessary. The finding that 2Apro provides eIF2-independent translation opens a new and unsuspected area of research in the field of picornavirus protein synthesis.

La enhances IRES-mediated translation of laminin B1 during malignant epithelial to mesenchymal transition

The majority of transcripts that harbor an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) are involved in cancer development via corresponding proteins. A crucial event in tumor progression referred to as epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) allows carcinoma cells to acquire invasive properties. The translational activation of the extracellular matrix component laminin B1 (LamB1) during EMT has been recently reported suggesting an IRES-mediated mechanism. In this study, the IRES activity of LamB1 was determined by independent bicistronic reporter assays. Strong evidences exclude an impact of cryptic promoter or splice sites on IRES-driven translation of LamB1. Furthermore, no other LamB1 mRNA species arising from alternative transcription start sites or polyadenylation signals were detected that account for its translational control. Mapping of the LamB1 5′-untranslated region (UTR) revealed the minimal LamB1 IRES motif between −293 and −1 upstream of the start codon. Notably, RNA affinity purification showed that the La protein interacts with the LamB1 IRES. This interaction and its regulation during EMT were confirmed by ribonucleoprotein immunoprecipitation. In addition, La was able to positively modulate LamB1 IRES translation. In summary, these data indicate that the LamB1 IRES is activated by binding to La which leads to translational upregulation during hepatocellular EMT.

An Internal Ribosome Entry Site Directs Translation of the 3′-Gene from Pelargonium Flower Break Virus Genomic RNA: Implications for Infectivity

Pelargonium flower break virus (PFBV, genus Carmovirus) has a single-stranded positive-sense genomic RNA (gRNA) which contains five ORFs. The two 5′-proximal ORFs encode the replicases, two internal ORFs encode movement proteins, and the 3′-proximal ORF encodes a polypeptide (p37) which plays a dual role as capsid protein and as suppressor of RNA silencing. Like other members of family Tombusviridae, carmoviruses express ORFs that are not 5′-proximal from subgenomic RNAs. However, in one case, corresponding to Hisbiscus chlorotic ringspot virus, it has been reported that the 3′-proximal gene can be translated from the gRNA through an internal ribosome entry site (IRES). Here we show that PFBV also holds an IRES that mediates production of p37 from the gRNA, raising the question of whether this translation strategy may be conserved in the genus. The PFBV IRES was functional both in vitro and in vivo and either in the viral context or when inserted into synthetic bicistronic constructs. Through deletion and mutagenesis studies we have found that the IRES is contained within a 80 nt segment and have identified some structural traits that influence IRES function. Interestingly, mutations that diminish IRES activity strongly reduced the infectivity of the virus while the progress of the infection was favoured by mutations potentiating such activity. These results support the biological significance of the IRES-driven p37 translation and suggest that production of the silencing suppressor from the gRNA might allow the virus to early counteract the defence response of the host, thus facilitating pathogen multiplication and spread.

Efficient co-expression of bicistronic proteins in mesenchymal stem cells by development and optimization of a multifunctional plasmid

IntroductionLocal synthesis of interferon within B16 tumors mediates anti-tumor effects. Based on reports that stem cells are recruited to tumors, and because systemic administration of interferon causes dose-limiting undesirable side effects, we wanted to improve the anti-tumor effects of interferon while simultaneously minimizing its systemic side effects by employing mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) as tumor-localized ectopic producers of interferon. Many vectors exist to fulfill this purpose, but their transfection efficiency and resulting expression levels vary considerably.MethodsTo follow both the recruitment to tumors and the synthesis of interferon by MSCs, we designed a bicistronic vector system that permits fluorescent visualization of vector-transfected and interferon-producing MSCs. We used Mu-IFNαA cDNA as the first cistron and the cherry fluorescent protein cDNA as the second cistron, whose translation requires the internal ribosome entry sequence (IRES) from the encephalomyocarditis virus 5' untranslated region. Observing inconsistent expression of these cistrons in various vectors and cell lines, especially compared with a control plasmid pmaxGFP, we optimized the expression of this bicistronic message by mutating pcDNA3 to facilitate exchange of the promoter and polyadenylation segments controlling both the gene of interest and the eukaryotic antibiotic resistance gene as well as the eukaryotic antibiotic resistance gene itself, and effectively compare the effects of these exchanges, creating plasmid pc3.5.ResultsMurine MSCs stably and ectopically expressing Mu-IFNαA inhibited the establishment of tumors in homogeneic C57/BL6 mice. Mu-IFNαA expressed from the bicistronic message is fully biologically active, but is expressed at only two-thirds of the level observed from a monocistronic message. Cap-dependent translation is threefold more efficient than IRES-driven translation in 293T, B16, and MSC cell lines. Both efficient expression and good transfection efficiency require strong expression of the gene of interest and a chimeric intron. High doses of Mu-IFNαA within tumors inhibited tumor establishment but may not inhibit tumor growth.ConclusionsOur modified vector and its derived plasmids will find use in stem cell therapeutics, gene expression, mRNA regulation, and transcription regulation. Local release of Mu-IFNαA within tumors may differently affect tumor establishment and tumor growth.

Cap-Assisted Internal Initiation of Translation of Histone H4

In eukaryotes, a crucial step of translation initiation is the binding of the multifactor complex eIF4F to the 5' end of the mRNA, a prerequisite to recruitment of the activated small ribosomal 43S particle. Histone H4mRNAs have short 5'UTRs, which do not conform to the conventional scanning-initiation model. Here we show that the ORF of histone mRNA contains two structural elements critical for translation initiation. One of the two structures binds eIF4E without the need of the cap. Ribosomal 43S particles become tethered to this site and directly loaded in the vicinity of the AUG. The other structure, 19 nucleotides downstream of the initiation codon, forms a three-way helix junction, which sequesters the m(7)G cap. This element facilitates direct positioning of the ribosome on the cognate start codon. This unusual translation initiation mode might be considered as a hybrid mechanism between the canonical and the IRES-driven translation initiation process.

Translation Driven by Picornavirus IRES Is Hampered from Sindbis Virus Replicons: Rescue by Poliovirus 2A Protease

Alphavirus replicons are very useful for analyzing different aspects of viral molecular biology. They are also useful tools in the development of new vaccines and highly efficient expression of heterologous genes. We have investigated the translatability of Sindbis virus (SV) subgenomic mRNA bearing different 5′-untranslated regions, including several viral internal ribosome entry sites (IRESs) from picornaviruses, hepatitis C virus, and cricket paralysis virus. Our findings indicate that all these IRES-containing mRNAs are initially translated in culture cells transfected with the corresponding SV replicon but their translation is inhibited in the late phase of SV replication. Notably, co-expression of different poliovirus (PV) non-structural genes reveals that the protease 2A (2A pro) is able to increase translation of subgenomic mRNAs containing the PV or encephalomyocarditis virus IRESs but not of those of hepatitis C virus or cricket paralysis virus. A PV 2A pro variant deficient in eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) 4GI cleavage or PV protease 3C, neither of which cleaves eIF4GI, does not increase picornavirus IRES-driven translation, whereas L protease from foot-and-mouth disease virus also rescues translation. These findings suggest that the replicative foci of SV-infected cells where translation takes place are deficient in components necessary to translate IRES-containing mRNAs. In the case of picornavirus IRESs, cleavage of eIF4GI accomplished by PV 2A pro or foot-and-mouth disease virus protease L rescues this inhibition. eIF4GI co-localizes with ribosomes both in cells electroporated with SV replicons bearing the picornavirus IRES and in cells co-electroporated with replicons that express PV 2A pro. These findings support the idea that eIF4GI cleavage is necessary to rescue the translation driven by picornavirus IRESs in baby hamster kidney cells that express SV replicons.

Conformational inhibition of the hepatitis C virus internal ribosome entry site RNA

The internal ribosome entry site (IRES), a highly conserved structured element of the hepatitis C virus genomic RNA, is an attractive target for antiviral drugs. Here we show that benzimidazole inhibitors of the HCV replicon act by conformational induction of a widened interhelical angle in the IRES subdomain IIa which facilitates the undocking of subdomain IIb from the ribosome and ultimately leads to inhibition of IRES-driven translation in HCV-infected cells.