Iranian Intellectuals Research Articles

Āl-e Ahmad's Faustian Bargain? Antonio Gramsci, the “Progressive Clergy,” and the Search for Hegemony in Late-Pahlavi Iran

This article explores the first translations of the Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci into Persian and a more speculative reconstruction of Gramsci's reception during the second half of the 1960s by two prominent Iranian intellectuals and dissidents close to the League of Iranian Socialists. After examining the initial translations by the influential translator and political activist, Manūchehr Hezārkhānī (d. 2022), the author moves to unpack, Jalāl Āl-e Ahmad's (d. 1969) interpretations, reconstruction, and deployment of these fragmentary translations from an already disjointed and curated edition of the Prison Notebooks. Gramsci's analyses of culture, religion and religious institutions, intellectual production, and political mobilization were drawn upon for a variety of purposes. Thus, while some intellectuals, most famously Āl-e Ahmad, hypothesized that the politically engaged clergy's moral and political leadership was essential to the successful mobilization of the masses against imperialism and the overthrow of the US-backed Pahlavi dictatorship, others, including Hezārkhānī, ultimately came to advocate in favor of a popular front and coalition of secular and religious forces in defense of “democratic freedoms” against the threat of clerical domination in the 1979 revolution's aftermath.

The ‘New Woman’ of Weimar Germany in the imaginations of young Iranian intellectuals

ABSTRACT By examining the writings of young Iranian students in Berlin, this paper argues that the ‘New Woman’ of Weimar Germany was a transnational creation, imagined as the personification of modernity, and who served as a discursive trope for the aspirations and anxieties of interwar intellectuals in a rapidly changing global order. A key aim of this article is to highlight the simultaneity of changing perspectives toward women among both European and Middle Eastern intellectuals during the interwar period, and to frame their understanding of modernity within discourses of youth and generational conflict. In their push for reform in Iranian society, Iranian intellectuals transformed the Weimar ‘New Woman’ into a symbol for European modernity as a whole. This constructed, archetypal personification of modernity was decontextualized from the contested and politically charged debates in Germany on the rights and roles of women in society.

Andre Godard and Maxime Siroux: Disentangling the Narrative of French Colonialism and Modern Architecture in Iran

AbstractThis paper investigates the impact of two French architects, Andre Godard and Maxime Siroux, in early twentieth-century Iran using postcolonial methodology to challenge the reductive prevailing narrative of these architects as representatives of Western imperial powers. Furthermore, this paper argues for the existence of a distinct local modernism in Iran, highlights the enduring presence of Iranian architectural traditions throughout different historical periods, and argues against the narrative of modern architectural works in Iran as simplistic hybrids of pre-Islamic Iranian architecture and Western modernism. In addition, this research underscores the role of Iranian intellectuals in shaping the cultural and social movements that led to the broader modernization of Iran and modernism in Iranian architecture.

Modern Iranian fiction in the Soviet Union: Translation and representation

During the Soviet era, the works of 55 contemporary Iranian authors were translated into Russian and published in the Soviet Union. Prefaces and afterwords, usually written by Iran scholars, provided the Soviet reading audience with a paradigm for perceiving the translated novels and short stories. This paper aims to offer an analytical survey of the history of the translation of modern Iranian fiction into Russian and to trace the major trends in the representation of the translated works. The thematic range of translated works correlated with the domestic political agenda and the changes in Soviet-Iranian relations, as well as with the current state of Soviet Iranian Studies. The influence of personal tastes and connections of certain Iran scholars engaged in the process of translation can also be detected. Generally, the translations of contemporary literature of Iran were to demonstrate that Iranian intellectuals were aware of the flaws of their society, and eager to choose the more humanistic values of the socialist countries. Before World War II, the translators were mainly interested in the socio-political aspect of the works. After the war and before the thaw in Soviet-Iranian relations, translators focused mainly on social satire. In the 1960s – early 1980s, many works of the most prominent Iranian writers of the period were translated into Russian. In the early 1980s, these translations were viewed as a means of understanding the reasons for the Iranian upheaval. The novels and short stories of Iranian modernists, as well as other ideologically inappropriate works, remained untranslated.

An Underdeveloped Political Thought

The theoretical basis for this essay is the basic idea of the sociology of knowledge, which I described in my previous work (Rasekh, K., 2000:10-22). It is hypothetical to assume that Iran is an underdeveloped country. On this basis, I try to prove that there is a link between social relations, (here: Iran), on the one hand, and the political thinking of a social group, the Iranian intellectuals, in a certain period, on the other. I have divided the development of political thinking of Iranian intelligentsia into three periods: the period of "reformers" (1811-1906), that of "modernists" (1906-41) and that of "intellectuals" (1941-79). This division corresponds to three periods of Iranian history in the last two centuries: the first period coincide the 19th Century. This period is called "the era of reformers." The era of the "modernists" covers the first half of the 20th Century. Finally, the era of "intellectuals", the period between World War II and 1979. The hypothesis is that the group, which originally was concerned with the national "progress" became an obstacle against the democratization process of the country. This thought will be called the "underdeveloped political thought", henceforth. The political thinking, whose main characteristic was the claim for monopoly of power. This is the dialectic of "underdevelopment".

ʻAbd al-Rahim Talebof’s Promotion of Nationality and National Sociopolitical Reform in Kitab-i Aḥmad (1890–1894)

Abstract Scholars of Persian literature approach ‘Abd al-Rahim Talebof’s Kitab-i Aḥmad (1890–1894) either as a pedagogical treatise exemplifying his stance on the importance of modern education for Iranian children or as an informative text presenting modern European-style scientific advances and discoveries to Iranians. Moreover, they look at contemporary European intellectuals and intellectual thought informing Talebof’s work, especially Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Émile, ou de L’Éducation (1763). In this way, they overlook the role of the contemporary Iranian intellectual discourse in forming Talebof’s work and thought. This article demonstrates that Talebof wrote his book in conversation with the works of both his eminent Iranian intellectuals and their European counterparts. Building upon the current scholarship, this article argues that in Kitab-i Aḥmad, Talebof, in addition to promoting his educational mission and informative goals, lays out his most developed social philosophy, in particular, his theorization of “nationality” (millīyat) or allegiance to an imagined nation. Talebof espouses the idea that Iranians need to own moral and religious commitment to a national community and posits “nationality” as the essential framework within which modern educational and sociopolitical reforms can be implemented.

پروژه‌ی تأسیس در فکرِ متجدد: بازاندیشیِ استقبالِ روشنفکری معاصر ایران از گفتار در روشِ دکارت

Descartes’s Discours de la Méthode has been translated into Persian three times in three separate historical periods, each with a unique incentive, from 1241 (1863) to 1310 (1932). Today, this text is one of the topics of interest in the intellectual movements of Iran as a pre-history of the emergence of Modern European philosophy in the Persian language. The book “Seyri Hikmat Dar Urūpā” [The Course of Philosophy in Europe], which was and still is one of the most significant sources for acquainting Persian speakers with European philosophy in the 14th century, is the result of the last translation of Descartes’ book. It has played a crucial role in creating the translation policy, choosing equivalences, and influencing how Western ideas were introduced in Iran. Regarding Descartes and the “establishment” project, it can be seen that Mohammad Ali Foroughi’s thoughts on Descartes gradually changed in the succeeding volumes of the book. As a result, we may outline a pathway regarding the development of contemporary intellectual consciousness in Iran by following the viewpoint that emerged in Descartes’ thought, particularly in Discours de la Méthode. The critical rethinking of this consciousness by focussing on the so-called “establishment of science” or “promoting the basis of wisdom” among Iranian intellectuals can reveal aspects of this imaginary vision which still relevant today in many conservative or reactionary blocs concerning the “establishment of civilization” or “science production.” Taking the above-mentioned into account, we can better explain these tendencies and their ideological patterns. The task of critical thinking in such a situation is to provide critical arguments against all these ideological forms of the “establishment” and to remove the intellectual obstacles to empower civil society through developing historical knowledge regarding the objective and subjective origins of those ideologies. The most exemplary illustration of this project in the early Iranian intellectuals can be observed in Mohammad Ali Foroughi and his book Seyri Hikmat Dar Urūpā, in which the author’s views progress as the book goes forward. After the Second World War and the erosion of the image of progressive Europe, the establishment project adopted a different approach. It redirected its focus from modern Western ideas to indigenous and Eastern ideas.

Hemostatic efficacy of composite polysaccharide powder (starch-chitosan) for emergency bleeding control: An animal model study

BackgroundBlood clot formation or hemostasis is vital to minimize blood loss and mitigate the risk of death from severe bleeding. This study investigates the characteristics of a novel hemostatic composite containing chemically modified chitosan and starch for emergency bleeding control. The performance of this novel hemostatic powder was compared with commercially available starch-based (Arista AH) and chitosan-based (Celox) hemostats. MethodsHemostatic composite was prepared according to the patent registered by the authors (Patent No. 100865, Iranian Intellectual Property Organization) in Bani Zist Baspar Healda, Inc. (Shiraz, Iran). The properties of the product were surveyed by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and compared with Arista-AH and Celox as commercial counterparts. The cytocompatibility, hemolysis, platelet and red blood cells (RBCs) adhesion, biocompatibility, and biodegradability attributes were evaluated in in vivo and in vitro studies. Hemostatic efficacy was evaluated in 24 healthy 6-month-old male New Zealand white rabbits in lethal and sublethal injuries of femoral artery and veins, respectively. ResultsModification and composition led to a fundamental development in physicochemical characteristics including swelling properties, water absorption, and platelet and RBC adhesion due to improved electrostatic and hydrophilic attributes. The significant superiority in clotting efficiency was confirmed after the application of the composite in 2 models of venous and arterial injury in comparison with common commercial hemostats. ConclusionSimultaneous use of water-absorbing compounds and introducing positively charged functional groups to hemostatic material led to a considerable control of femoral bleeding in emergency conditions. The introduced composite was biodegradable and biocompatible and prompts RBC aggregation and platelet adhesion.

Jalal Al-e Ahmad’s Gharbzadegi and the Spirit of Bandung: A Decolonial Reimagination of Development in Mid-Twentieth Century Iran

Sixty years after the original publication of Gharbzadegi (1962) by dissident Iranian writer Jalal Al-e Ahmad, the controversial book remains an important marker in the formation of the mid- and late-twentieth century perceptions of Iranian intellectuals about the relationship between their country’s past, present, and future. Building on the recent scholarship which considers Gharbzadegi as an alternative vision of the future rather than a nostalgic call for a return to the past, this article situates the book’s piercing critique of the Pahlavi state’s modernization and development agenda in a decolonial register. This is done through a reading of Gharbzadegi against the background, on the one hand, of the 1955 Bandung Conference at which representatives from various Asian and African nations gathered to discuss the futures of their countries after colonialism, and on the other hand, of the local experiences of semi-coloniality and dependent development. This reading helps to foreground an alternative conception of modernity in Gharbzadegi, and a decolonial vision in the book of development through delinking from Eurocentric designs. Reading it against the background of the Bandung Conference further helps to situate Gharbzadegi’s engagements with the Islamic tradition in the wider context of a postcolonial turn to religion. The article thus argues that Al-e Ahmad’s turn to Islam reflects a postcolonial sentiment that in developing alternatives to Europe’s colonial modernity the peoples of the Third World ought to reengage with the ways of life and modes of knowledge and norm production which were dismissed and suppressed by the dominating colonial structures and knowledge systems.

Ali Mirsepassi. Iran’s Quiet Revolution: The Downfall of the Pahlavi State.

Iran’s intellectual encounter with modernity in the twentieth century and turn to Islamism around the Iranian Revolution (1978–1979) have animated vigorous scholarly debates, to which Ali Mirsepassi has made stimulating and provocative contributions. In four previous monographs, starting with ­Intellectual ­Discourse and the Politics of Modernization: ­Negotiating ­Modernity in Iran (2000) to Transnationalism in Iranian Political Thought: The Life and Times of Ahmad Fardid (2017), he has developed a singular argument: the prerevolutionary ­“anti-modern” and ­“anti-Western” discourse of “authenticity” and ­“nativism” among Iranian intellectuals was largely influenced by the German ­philosopher Martin ­Heidegger, and these works paved the way for the ­Islamist turn of the Iranian Revolution. Iran’s Quiet Revolution further develops this argument with a crucial twist: “anti-Western nativism” was not only cultivated and popularized by oppositional intellectuals but also by state elites and institutions. While the Pahlavi state pursued “a Western and modernist model in economic and...

Iran’s backwardness from the perspective of nineteenth-century Iranian thinkers

Contemporary Iranian scholars’ ideas about their country’s ‘backwardness’ have their roots in nineteenth-century Iranian intellectualism. This article introduces four prominent Qajar era thinkers and traces their perceptions of the reasons for Iran’s ‘backwardness’ and their solutions to overcome it. In addition to Iranian intellectuals’ admiration of modern science, the article identifies and examines four prominent aspects of nineteenth-century thought on the miserable situation of Iran and strategies for national progress: despotism and lawlessness in Iran; the Arab invasion of Persia; Islam in general and the Shiʿa ulama in particular; and the need for alphabet reform. This article shows that while elements of nineteenth-century intellectuals’ ideas are questionable, their legacy persists in contemporary Iranian scholarship.

Henry Corbin’s Oriental Philosophy and Iranian Nativist Ideologies

This paper aims to explore the roots of the nativist discourse among Iranian intellectuals in the 20th century prior to the Islamic Revolution, a discourse based on Eastern authenticity and the felt need for a return to Islamic, Persian, or Asian traditions. This general tendency took various forms among anti- and even pro-regime intellectuals, including severe anti-modernist evaluations of Al-e-Ahmad, Hossein Nasr, Ahmad Fardid, and Ehsan Naraqi. This nativist movement, as some scholars have shown, played a significant role in the victory of the Islamic Revolution in 1979. This paper aims to discuss some philosophical origins of these East-based and anti-West ideologies in the specific interpretation of Henry Corbin of the East/West spiritual split. This paper demonstrates that these ideas, to a considerable extent, stemmed from Corbin’s “Eastern scheme,” based on the authenticity of spiritual illumination. This paper explores how this Oriental philosophy, rooted in ancient Persia and medieval Iranian wisdom, has been used for political purposes through the ideologization of tradition in contemporary Iran. Therefore, it discusses Corbin’s theological scheme’s political and social ramifications to demonstrate the traces of his scheme in the works of a few nativist intellectuals in an ideologized form.

AFSHIN MARASHI, Exile and the Nation: The Parsi Community of India and the Making of Modern Iran (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2020)

Abstract: The following is a review of the monograph Exile and the Nation, by Afshin Marashi, which examines ideological developments reflective of the early-twentieth century encounter between Iranian intellectuals and India’s Parsi (Zoroastrian) community, such as informed the formulation of a neoclassical Iranian national identity rooted in Iran’s pre-Islamic history.

Introduction to Jalal AL-E Ahmad's “To Mohassess, For the Wall”

Abstract “To Mohassess, For the Wall” is an article written in 1964 by Jalal Al-e Ahmad, one of the most influential and charismatic Iranian intellectuals of the time. Three years before writing this article, Al-e Ahmad had published Weststruckness, discussing the Iranians’ cultural alienation caused by the dependence on the west. In “To Mohassess, For the Wall”, Al-e Ahmad shifts his analysis to Iranian painting, arguing that Iranian painters during the 1960s merely repeat Western cultural processes and strategies instead of constructing Iranian ones. The context for Al-e Ahmad's argument is the Pahlavi regime's radical program of rapid modernization, which in the area of the arts was systematically expanded. Critical, provocative or problematic, the article offers a crucial window into the adoption of Western-style modernism by Iranian painters during the 1960s and into how an “insider” intellectual such as Al-e Ahmad evaluated the modernization of Iranian art before the background of what he perceived as the critical neglect of Iranian traditions. The text is addressed to Bahman Mohassess, a painter whom Al-e Ahmad considered to be one of the few who had not been coopted by the cultural policies of the Shah's regime.

To Mohassess, For the Wall

Abstract “To Mohassess, For the Wall” is an article written in 1964 by Jalal Al-e Ahmad, one of the most influential and charismatic Iranian intellectuals of the time. Three years before writing this article, Al-e Ahmad had published Weststruckness, discussing the Iranians’ cultural alienation caused by the dependence on the west. In “To Mohassess, For the Wall”, Al-e Ahmad shifts his analysis to Iranian painting, arguing that Iranian painters during the 1960s merely repeat Western cultural processes and strategies instead of constructing Iranian ones. The context for Al-e Ahmad's argument is the Pahlavi regime's radical program of rapid modernization, which in the area of the arts was systematically expanded. Critical, provocative or problematic, the article offers a crucial window into the adoption of Western-style modernism by Iranian painters during the 1960s and into how an “insider” intellectual such as Al-e Ahmad evaluated the modernization of Iranian art before the background of what he perceived as the critical neglect of Iranian traditions. The text is addressed to Bahman Mohassess, a painter whom Al-e Ahmad considered to be one of the few who had not been coopted by the cultural policies of the Shah's regime.

Reception of Rorty’s Thought in Iran: How His Anti-Foundationalism Has Contributed to Iran’s Tradition-Modernity Debate

: Richard Rorty’s controversial works in various areas of epistemology, language, politics and philosophy have drawn intellectual attention worldwide. In Iran, Rorty’s own distinctive way of thinking has attracted the attention of intellectual and philosophical circles. This article explores how his thought as received by Iranian intellectuals has contributed to the development of their ongoing debate on tradition and modernity. A few Iranian intellectuals have tried to find in Rorty’s ideas a solution to what they perceive as their own society’s problems. In particular, they believe his notion of anti-foundationalism and his idea of the priority of democracy to philosophy are ways to reconcile their own traditional philosophical and doctrinal conceptions with modern democratic institutions.

Between Iran and Zion: Jewish Histories of Twentieth-Century Iran by Lior B. Sternfeld

Reviewed by: Between Iran and Zion: Jewish Histories of Twentieth-Century Iran by Lior B. Sternfeld Ariane Sadjed Lior B. Sternfeld . Between Iran and Zion: Jewish Histories of Twentieth-Century Iran . Stanford, CA : Stanford University Press , 2018 . 208 pp. doi:10.1017/S0364009420000677 Lior Sternfeld refreshingly departs from mainstream accounts of modern Iranian Jewish history by pointing out the multiple ways through which the [End Page 213] Jewish community engaged with its broader Iranian environment. This makes it a very important voice in the sometimes-static discourse about Middle Eastern Jewish identities. Sternfeld focuses on the decades 1920–1980, during which massive transformations in social class and political agency unfolded in Iranian society, and among Jews as part of it. By assessing how Jews started to take part in the political life of modern Iran, the author refutes one-sided identity concepts that pit "Jewish" and "Iranian" identities against each other. Chapter 1 deals with demographic changes in Iran during and after World War II. Reza Shah (reigned 1925–1941) introduced new ideas of nationalism to Iran, and we learn about the country's ensuing struggle to remain neutral in the face of the emerging Second World War and the conflicting interests of the Great Powers. Sternfeld describes the arrival of Jewish refugees to Iran, mostly from Poland, in 1942–43. Together with the later influx of Iraqi Jews, who increasingly arrived in the 1950s, he portrays aspects of a diverse culture, in which many parallel and interacting worlds of "Jewishness" were possible. The second chapter discusses the Iranian political sphere after 1941 and the shaping of national identity. Sternfeld focuses on Jewish participation in the leftist Tudeh Party, including the different reasons that led Jews to join it, as a way to enter local society as patriots or to rebel against tradition, family, or religion. He is careful not to overemphasize communist ideology, as many leftist Jews supported local goals, decoupled from Marxist ideologies, and prioritized Iran's interest over Soviet ones "in order to become more Iranian" (46). Besides well-elaborated interviews with individuals who were members of the Tudeh Party, Sternfeld bases his analysis on two leftist Iranian Jewish newspapers: Nissan and Bani Adam . However, not enough context is provided about the newspapers and their readership to determine how representative they were. Both were published for a short period, and these publications' status within the broader Jewish community in Iran must be clarified. Chapter 3 deals with Zionism and Iran's relationship with Israel during the Pahlavi era in more detail. It is remarkable that Jews had "multiple identities" (65), that is, it was possible to be an Iranian nationalist, Jew, communist, and Zionist. Zionism was an opportunity to escape oppressive political and economic hardships, rather than an ideological commitment. This explains why predominantly poorer segments of the Jewish community moved to Israel, while those who had experienced upward mobility did not see any reason to leave Iran or chose other destinations for emigration. Sternfeld manages to describe the significance of Zionism and related patterns of migration in a nuanced way. The author concludes that in the 1950s, the image of the Jew in Iranian society was positive. Chapter 4 discusses the years leading up to the revolution in 1978/79. Sternfeld tackles the seeming contradiction between Jews having reached "full integration" in the public sphere under the Pahlavi monarchy, while they still "overwhelmingly did not appear to support the continuation of the monarchy" (93). Such generalized statements must be questioned, for neither can one speak of the same degree of integration among the different strata of Jewish society at the time, including the conflicts resulting from these differences, nor is there [End Page 214] sufficient evidence provided to describe the political inclinations of an overwhelming majority. The chapter introduces the Association of Jewish Iranian Intellectuals (AJII) as the main venue for Jewish leftist activities. The bylaws of the AJII mirror the political discourse of the time, envisioning a model society in which universal values of solidarity would yield a just and open community where Jews would be equal citizens. Sternfeld furthermore discusses the activities of the SAPIR hospital during the revolution of 1979 and argues that...

The Danish Orientalist Arthur Christensen’s Visit to Iran in 1929 and His Meeting with the Iranian Intelligentsia

This article focuses on Arthur Christensen’s meeting with the Iranian intelligentsia in 1929. Arthur Christensen’s L’Iran sous les Sassanides had a tremendous influence on the Iranian nationalism at the beginning of the twentieth century. However, Christensen’s encounter with Iranian intellectuals in 1929 shows that from the very beginning they had much in common, and furthermore that Christensen was influenced by Iranian nationalism.

The Origins of the Early Iranian Enlightenment: The Case of Akhundzade’s “Qirītīkā”

Akhundzade is one of the greatest Iranian modern intellectuals. Addressing nationalism, literary criticism, and alphabet reform in the Muslim world, and, most importantly, provoking trenchant criticism of the Islamic religion, he initiated a persistent controversy among the Iranian intellectuals. It is often argued that he approached the European thought through the lens of self-orientalism and grounded a so-called will to imitation. Drawing on his method of Qirītīkā (criticism), particularly in Maktūbāt (1865), I argue that he confronted the Western ideas instrumentally and was aware of the historical and social context of Iran. Furthermore, despite his apparent secular approach, which is labelled usually as garbzade (West-struck), he articulated an ensemble of elements that can be traced back to pre-Islamic Iran, India, and the West. His intellectual works not only stand as the figureheads of regional studies but also represent a pathbreaking approach to the problem of backwardness in Muslim societies.

Traumatisme postrévolutionnaire et romans autobiographiques : La deuxième génération d’exilées iraniennes en France

The Islamic revolution of 1979 and its developments have been the major reasons for the mass migration of Iranian intellectuals to the West and the main topic of the Iranian diaspora’s literary texts. However, since the turn of the twenty-first century, especially in France, a new generation of Iranian women novelists has created a shift in traditional post-revolutionary memoir writing by focusing on more individual themes such as childhood, the body, and trauma. In this article, the author explores the various ways in which two of these novelists, Negar Djavadi and Chahdortt Djavann, have represented levels of trauma in their auto-fictional narratives of the Islamic revolution. In this regard, starting from a conceptual representation of trauma as reliving the historical past by protagonists, it is shown how both psychological and cultural definitions of the trauma are depicted in these novels. The article suggests that this multidirectional approach allows the authors to overcome the alienation caused by the Islamic revolution's contradictory nature in a postcolonial era.