Iran-Iraq War Research Articles

Mourning mothers and wars that never end: reading Nasim Marashi’s Haras (Pruning) in the shadow of the Iran-Iraq war

ABSTRACT The Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), which the Iranian government frames as a ‘Sacred Defense’, occupies a large space in contemporary Persian fiction, sometimes in surprising ways. This article focuses on the 2017 novel Haras (Pruning) by Nasim Marashi (Nasīm Marʿashī), which despite being shaped entirely by the context of the Iran-Iraq War rarely treats the experience of living through it. The article explores how Haras builds on previous works that use the war not as a focal point, like conventional war literature, but a point of departure to explore different stories about post-war Iran, intricately connected to, yet far beyond, the war with Iraq. The article postulates that by using the war with Iraq to call attention to the loss of people, homes, and the environment, Haras uses the war to innovatively challenge the messaging of the Islamic Republic.

Appropriating Hafez’s ghazals for Shiite rites and rituals in the Islamic Republic of Iran

ABSTRACT The poetry of the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988) is commonly grafted to classical Persian topoi, imagery, metaphors. Several war poets use classical poetry to communicate with their audiences as this poetry is familiar and they can effortlessly convey their political and ideological message. This article investigates how modern amateur poets use classical poetry to create their own poems for political and religious use. I shall specifically analyse a few instances in which the poetry of the classical Persian poet Hafez of Shiraz (1315–1390) is integrated in various ideologically Shiite contexts. Some scholars have argued that Hafez’s ghazals have little cohesion, characterizing the poem’s couplets as ‘pearls at random strung’, but as we shall see these ghazals enjoy thematic coherence, even their ambiguity creates spaces for a modern appropriation and interpolation of couplets in his poetry, allowing the use of a poem as a commentary on religious and political events. While I shall give attention to Hafez’s art of poetry, my main focus will be upon the modern application of his poetry by professional Shiite singers (maddāḥs) who perform such poems to whet the emotions of their audiences, placing the poem in a purely Shiite or ideologically Islamist propaganda.

Da and its mothers of the martyred: meaning and contest in an Iranian war memoir

ABSTRACT Zahra Husayni’s war memoir Da (2008) is widely recognized as one of the most successful productions of Hawzah-yi Hunari’s Holy Defence oral history project. Focusing on this work and by using a combination of paratextual analysis and close reading, the present article explores the dynamics of meaning-making as a contested phenomenon within the propagandist messaging of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The analysis hinges on the fact that despite the official promotion of this memoir as a tribute to the mothers of martyrs of the Iran-Iraq War, the narratives of these mothers are surprisingly marginalized within the text. Approaching the Holy Defence discourse as a Lyotardian grand narrative, this article raises the question whether in light of this discrepancy, a counter-discursive reading of Da is possible. Exploring this question provides insight into the construction and propagation of meaning in the Holy Defence war memoirs industry in Iran.

The myth of the Basiji: Morteza Avini’s legacy for the propaganda in Iran

ABSTRACT From 1980 to 1988, Iran and Iraq fought the longest conventional war of the 20th century. As combat devolved into trench warfare from 1982 onwards, Iranian propagandists faced a new challenge in mobilizing troops for the front. The propaganda documentary series Revayat-e Fath, produced by the Iranian director Morteza Avini, is a response to these circumstances. In this article, the narratives employed by the series will be conceptualized as myths, and thus, it will be argued that the series uses already existing stories as work on myth, according to philosopher Hans Blumenberg’s definition of the term. Specifically, the series employs the Qur’anic myth of Ibrahim and the story of Imam al-Husayn’s martyrdom to narrate the necessity of patience, trust in God and self-sacrifice among the soldiers. By doing so, the series not only statically employs these myths but also engages in a process of reception in which certain significant parts are put into the historical context of the Iran-Iraq War. This resulted in the creation of a new myth, referred to in this paper as the Basiji myth, embedding the motifs mentioned above into a new narrative of the meaning of death and sacrifice.

Regional Pattern of Representation for Cultural Heritage of the Holy Defense (Iran-Iraq War): Spatial Configuration of Axial Museum in Regional Scale by Rahian-Noor’s Population Mobility in Ahvaz-Arvand Axis in Iran

Regional Pattern of Representation for Cultural Heritage of the Holy Defense (Iran-Iraq War): Spatial Configuration of Axial Museum in Regional Scale by Rahian-Noor’s Population Mobility in Ahvaz-Arvand Axis in Iran

“Life in death”: Decolonizing Trauma in Sinan Antoon’s The Corpse Washer

ABSTRACT This article examines the poetics of death in the Iraqi American writer Sinan Antoon’s novel The Corpse Washer. The novel depicts death as a leitmotif while emphasizing the perils of wars and violence on the Iraqi people. Throughout the novel, death is omnipresent, looming over the lives of the characters, particularly the protagonist Jawad who endures nightmares, hallucinations, and split personality. These conditions are engendered by prolonged wars and cycles of violence, including the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), the Gulf War (1990–1991), and the invasion of Iraq in 2003. In addition to these wars, characters in The Corpse Washer are victimized by foreign sanctions, suicide bombings, sectarianism, and political corruption. In analyzing the tropes of death and violence in The Corpse Washer, this article extends classical trauma theory informed by Western assumptions and championed by Cathy Caruth, Shoshana Felman, Dori Laub, and others. It decolonizes trauma theory by tracing cases of tragedy, violence, and occupation in the global South, an analysis that will render the theory cross-cultural and inclusive of non-Western traumata.

Dexamethasone targets actin cytoskeleton signaling and inflammatory mediators to reverse sulfur mustard-induced toxicity in rabbit corneas

PurposeSulfur mustard (SM), a bi-functional alkylating agent, was used during World War I and the Iran-Iraq war. SM toxicity is ten times higher in eyes than in other tissues. Cornea is exceptionally susceptible to SM-injuries due to its anterior positioning and mucous-aqueous interphase. Ocular SM exposure induces blepharitis, photosensitivity, dry eye, epithelial defects, limbal ischemia and stem cell deficiency, and mustard gas keratopathy leading to temporary or permanent vision impairments. We demonstrated that dexamethasone (Dex) is a potent therapeutic intervention against SM-induced corneal injuries; however, its mechanism of action is not well known. Investigations employing proteomic profiling (LC-MS/MS) to understand molecular mechanisms behind SM-induced corneal injury and Dex efficacy were performed in the rabbit cornea exposed to SM and then received Dex treatment. PEAKS studio was used to extract, search, and summarize peptide identity. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis was used for pathway identification. Validation was performed using immunofluorescence. One-Way ANOVA (FDR < 0.05; p < 0.005) and Student's t-test (p < 0.05) were utilized for analyzing proteomics and IF data, respectively. Proteomic analysis revealed that SM-exposure upregulated tissue repair pathways, particularly actin cytoskeleton signaling and inflammation. Prominently dysregulated proteins included lipocalin2, coronin1A, actin-related protein2, actin-related protein2/3 complex subunit2, actin-related protein2/3 complex subunit4, cell division cycle42, ezrin, bradykinin/kininogen1, moesin, and profilin. Upregulated actin cytoskeleton signaling increases F-actin formation, dysregulating cell shape and motility. Dex reversed SM-induced increases in the aforementioned proteins levels to near control expression profiles. Dex aids corneal wound healing and improves corneal integrity via actin cytoskeletal signaling and anti-inflammatory effects following SM-induced injuries.

Brothers/soldiers: trauma and wartime Ahwaz in the art of Sadegh Tirafkan

ABSTRACT This essay explores the significance of a series of posthumously discovered, staged, colour photographs of twin boys holding rifles, as well as a short screenplay entitled ‘Tulips Bloom’, that the internationally-recognized artist Sadegh Tirafkan (1965–2013) created as a youth in Ahwaz, Iran, in 1982. Taking into consideration the context of the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988) and the related culture of martyrdom that so strongly affected the region and the artist's imagination reveals a subtext of trauma that may – the author proposes – explain the prominence of visual motifs, symbols and themes that recur throughout the artist's subsequent 30-year career. The author relies upon visual analysis of the artist's photographic art, published interviews, comparative visual analysis involving Iranian visual culture from the era (Balaghi; Chelkowski and Dabashi; Saramifar; Varzi); art history (Daneshvari; Foster; Keshmirshekan; Nazari; Porter); and theories of trauma from psychology (Herman), literary theory (Caruth) and sociology (Alexander; Erikson), in order to provide a new understanding of the artist's work throughout his career, from 1982 to 2013, and how the Iran-Iraq War shaped notions of Iranian post-Revolutionary identity in terms of military sacrifice and death.

Muhammed Rıza Serşâr’ın Küçük Göçmen Adlı Romanında Savaş Mağduru Çocukların Karşılaştığı Zorluklar

: War is an event that deeply affects people and has political, economic, social and cultural consequences. The Iraq-Iran War, which took place between 1980 and 1988, had critical consequences in the Middle East geography. Iranian intellectuals have extensively dealt with the repercussions of this war in their works. Muhammad Rıza Serşâr, who has produced many works in literary genres such as novels, stories and criticism, also focused on the destruction caused by the war. Serşâr, who could not remain insensitive to the problems of the society he lived in, examined the reflections of the war on innocent civilians in his novel The Little Immigrant. The author has realistically revealed the material and moral destruction caused by the war. He focused on the tragedy of a little boy who lost his family members and relatives in the Iraq-Iran War and was forced to leave his homeland. He conveyed the deep wounds that the war inflicted on the hearts of innocent civilians through the eyes of Abbas. Thus, the author drew attention to the negative effects of war on children. In this study, the difficulties faced by children who are victims of war affected by the Iraq-Iran war in Muhammed Rıza Serşâr's work titled The Little Immigrant are examined. These difficulties were examined under three different subheadings: physical, mental and social.

Psychosocial etiology of post-traumatic stress disorder caused by war trauma among Iran–Iraq war immigrants in Mehran, Iran

BackgroundPost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one of the most important and common disorders caused by war trauma. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between psychosocial factors and PTSD in war-torn immigrants in Mehran, Iran. MethodThe present study was conducted by descriptive and correlational method. The data were collected from 245 people (121 women and 124 men) from war-torn immigrants 45 years and older who migrated from Mehran to Ilam during the Iran–Iraq war. The measuring tools were as follows: Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Scale, Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MDPSS), Coping Strategies Scale (CSS-R), Multidimensional Health Locus of Control scale. ResultsThe prevalence rate of PTSD among war-torn immigrants in Mehran was 35.1 %. A significant negative correlation was observed between perceived social support and PTSD (p < .01). Coping strategies, including seeking social support, reappraisal/adaptation, problem-focused coping, and active coping, all showed significant negative correlations with PTSD (p < .01). Conversely, a significant positive correlation was found between avoidance coping strategies and self-control and PTSD (p < .01). In addition, there was a significant positive correlation between the external locus of control (believing in chance) and PTSD (P < 0.01) and significant negative correlation between internal locus of control and PTSD (P < .01). ConclusionWeakness in social support, locus of control and also inappropriate coping strategies against war trauma were among the strong risk factors for PTSD. Therefore, social and behavioral interventions are recommended to increase social support, teaching problem-solving skills and strengthen individual control among war-torn immigrants to reduce the risk of developing PTSD.

A 39 Year mortality study of survivors exposed to sulfur mustard agent: A survival analysis

BackgroundThe primary objective of this study was to analyze the long-term survival of 48,067 chemical warfare survivors who suffered from pulmonary, cutaneous, and ocular lesions in the decades following the Iran-Iraq war. MethodsThe data for this study were obtained from the Veterans and Martyr Affair Foundation (VMAF) database. The survivors were divided into two groups based on whether they were evacuated/admitted (EA) to a hospital or not evacuated/admitted (NEA) to a hospital. The proportional hazard (PH) assumption for age categories, gender, exposure statuses, and eye severity was not satisfied. Therefore, we used a Generalized Gamma (GG) distribution with an Accelerated Failure Time (AFT) model for analysis. ResultsThe study included a total of 48,067 observations, and among them, 4342 (9.03 %) died during the study period. The mean (SD) age of the survivors was 55.99 (7.9) years. The mortality rate increased with age, and higher rates were observed in males. Survival probabilities differed significantly among age categories, provinces, lung severity, and eye severity based on log-rank tests (p-value<0.05 for all). The GG model results showed that higher age and being male were associated with a shorter time to death. The study also found that the mortality rate was significantly higher in the EA group compared to the NEA group. ConclusionThe present study showed no significant difference in survival time between the EA and NEA groups. The findings suggest that pulmonary lesions caused by mustard gas are more likely to be fatal compared to skin and eye lesions. The results also indicate a potential association between survival time and the severity of lung damage.

Gastro-Intestinal Cancer among Iraqi Patients

The incidence of gastro-intestinal cancers among Iraqis is reviewed from 1973-2021 in different Iraqi provinces. The incidence rates are also illustrated in relation to age, sex, site of cancer and year of registration. Incidence rate differs widely in relation to locality, age, sex and race. Many factors have been considered as Iraq exposed to the Iraq-Iran war, gulf war and the usage of uranium weapon in the south part of Iraq.

Standardised mortality ratios in people exposed to sulphur mustard during the Iran–Iraq war: a retrospective study with 39-year follow-up

ObjectivesSulphur mustard (SM) is a chemical weapon agent that was extensively used by Iraqi troops during the Iran–Iraq war (1980–1988), resulting in exposure among Iranian military personnel and civilians. However, there is limited and conflicting information about the long-term mortality effects of SM exposure. This study aimed to determine the standardised mortality ratios (SMRs) in individuals exposed to SM gas during the Iran–Iraq war. Study designThis was a retrospective follow-up study. MethodsData were obtained from the Veterans and Martyr Affair Foundation of Iran (VMAF) regarding all confirmed individuals who were exposed to SM during the Iran–Iraq war (1980–1988) up to 30 March 2019. The mortality rate, cumulative mortality and SMR with 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated to assess mortality in chemical warfare survivors (CWS), and results were compared with the general Iranian population. Overall survival was analysed using the Kaplan–Meier curve, and the log-rank test was employed to compare survival probability across different categories. ResultsAmong the 48,067 confirmed CWS, a total of 4358 (9.1 %) individuals had died by the end of the study period (30 March 2019), with a mean age of 55.5 ± 14.4 years at the time of death. Overall, at the 39-year follow-up, the mortality rate due to all causes of death for people who were exposed to SM was lower than the general Iranian population (SMR: 0.70, 95 % CI: 0.68–0.72). However, cause-specific SMR analysis showed that the mortality rate due to liver cancer (SMR: 1.98, 95 % CI: 1.59–2.45), poisonings (SMR: 1.92, 95 % CI: 1.52–2.38), respiratory disorders (SMR: 1.59, 95 % CI: 1.46–1.73) and multiple myeloma (SMR: 1.72, 95 % CI: 1.06–2.62) were approximately twofold higher in CWS than the general population. ConclusionsThis study provides valuable insights into the mortality effects of SM exposure among the Iranian population affected by the Iran–Iraq war. The results emphasise the importance of continued monitoring and support for individuals exposed to SM, particularly in the context of managing and addressing the heightened risks associated with liver cancer, poisonings, respiratory disorders and multiple myeloma. Further research and interventions may be necessary to mitigate these specific health challenges in the affected population.

Seeing Black America in Iran

Abstract From the 1960s onwards, many Iranians closely followed Black American protests during the Civil Rights and Black Power movements in the United States. This period proved pivotal for Iranian understandings of race, where intellectuals, revolutionaries, and those in media would use US-centric histories of enslavement, racism, and Black Americans to erase nineteenth-century histories of enslavement and racism in Iran, tacitly displacing the existence of Black Iranians across the national landscape. Black American Muslims, particularly Malcolm X, emerged as the ideal form of Blackness. After the 1979 revolution, non-Black Iranians and the Iranian government would continue this focus on US-based racism through an official narrative that repeatedly defined racism as a US-only problem, ultimately cementing the erasures around histories of enslavement and Black Iranians that began with abolition in 1929. Through an analysis of speeches, memoirs, poetry, newspaper articles, photography, and other illustrated media, this article weaves together vignettes to demonstrate how the pervasiveness of racial hierarchies fashioned around US histories came to shift an Iranian vocabulary and conceptualization of race. This article traces the changes in racial discourse during the 1960s and 1970s, the 1979 revolution, and the Iran-Iraq War from an Iranian perspective.

Computer-assisted evaluation of small airway disease in CT scans of Iran-Iraq war victims of chemical warfare by a locally developed software: comparison between different quantitative methods

ObjectiveDiagnosis of small airway disease on computed tomography (CT) scans is challenging in patients with a history of chemical warfare exposure. We developed a software package based on different methodologies to identify and quantify small airway disease in CT images. The primary aim was to identify the best automatic methodology for detecting small airway disease in CT scans of Iran-Iraq War victims of chemical warfare.MethodsThis retrospective case–control study enrolled 46 patients with a history of chemical warfare exposure and 27 controls with inspiratory/expiratory (I/E) CT scans and spirometry tests. Image data were automatically segmented, and inspiratory images were registered into the expiratory images' frame using the locally developed software. Parametric response mapping (PRM) and air trapping index (ATI) mapping were performed on the CT images. Conventional QCT methods, including expiratory/inspiratory mean lung attenuation (E/I MLA) ratio, normal density E/I (ND E/I) MLA ratio, attenuation volume Index (AVI), %low attenuation areas (LAA) < -856 in exhale scans, and %LAA < -950 in inhale scans were also computed. QCT measurements were correlated with spirometry results and compared across the two study groups.ResultsThe correlation analysis showed a significant negative relationship between three air trapping (AT) measurements (PRM, ATI, and %LAAExp < -856) and spirometry parameters (Fev1, Fvc, Fev1/Fvc, and MMEF). Moreover, %LAAExp < -856 had the highest significant negative correlation with Fev1/Fvc (r = -0.643, P-value < 0.001). Three AT measurements demonstrated a significant difference between the study groups. The E/I ratio was also significantly different between the two groups (P-value < 0.001). Binary logistic regression models showed PRMFsad, %LAAExp < -856, and ATI as significant and strong predictors of the study outcome. Optimal cut-points for PRMFsad = 19%, %LAAExp < -856 = 23%, and ATI = 27% were identified to classify the participants into two groups with high accuracy.ConclusionQCT methods, including PRM, ATI, and %LAAExp < -856 can greatly advance the identification and quantification of SAD in chemical warfare victims. The results should be verified in well-designed prospective studies involving a large population.

Gaddafi's Chemical Weapons: Chronicles of the Chadian-Libyan Conflict

The civil war in Chad has become one of the most protracted conflicts on the African continent. Its gradual internationalization led to the participation of three foreign military contingents in an internal armed confrontation Libya has taken an active military part in the civil war in Chad since 1972. There were several indications in certain studies about the use of chemical weapons by the Libyan troops. In the realities of the 1980s, these allegations could be true, or they could be an element of some information campaign against Libya. The purpose of this article is to verify the reports of the use of chemical weapons in Chad. Sources, methods. The sources for the study were the UN documents, declassified CIA materials and media reports. Cross-analysis of the documents, as well as the historical reconstruction of background events were carried out. Discussion of the results and conclusions. The analysis of the sources showed that, to date, no material evidence of the use of chemical weapons by Libyan troops in Chad has been found. There were no testimonies of direct witnesses and victims. No investigations have been carried out. Two sources of dissemination of information about the use of chemical weapons in northern Chad have been identified. The first one is the representatives of one of the participants in the civil war, Hissene Habré, who held the post of president in N'Djamena and fought against the Libyan troops. Representatives of H. Habré made such statements in December 1986. They cannot be considered reliable. In this way, one of the parties to the civil war wanted to show that Chad was the victim of the aggression with the use of weapons prohibited by the Geneva Protocol of 1925. However, it was established that in 1986 Libya did not possess chemical weapons. The second source is the CIA reports retransmitted to the public space in September 1987 about the alleged deliveries of chemical weapons to Libya from Iran. The reliability of these reports is doubtful. The «Iranian trace» has also not been proven. In 1987, during the Iran-Iraq war (1980-1988), chemical weapons were used against Iran, but the military-chemical potential of Iran itself has not been established. However, such an accusation organically fit into the policy of containment of «rogue states» pursued by the administration of US President Ronald Reagan. In this article, cross-analysis methods have been tested. They have shown their effectiveness in retrospective investigations.

“There Should Be No Life”: Environmental Perspectives on Genocide in Northern Iraq

ABSTRACT This article examines the natural environment during the Kurdish genocide in northern Iraq. The genocide killed between 50,000 and 180,000 people and destroyed some 4,500 Kurdish villages from the 1960s to 1980s, reach peak violence during the Iran-Iraq War (1980–88). The paper uses American, British, and Iraqi archival documents to analyse how the violence affected the natural landscape and how ecological conditions constrained the violence. Iraqi leaders regarded dams and other modes of environmental engineering as levers to facilitate agricultural modernization and social integration. Protecting and projecting hydraulic power justified greater military exertion. Iraqi leaders, frustrated by the lack of progress in development and hostile to the claims of Kurdish nationalism, resorted to more coercive options to combat guerrillas. But the inadequacies of military exertion prompted the government to redouble efforts to tame unruly nature and those who dwelled in it. This escalation contributed significantly to the lethal violence against rural Kurdish society. At a theoretical level, these findings highlight the troubling ways in which policies aimed to improve environmental conditions fold into campaigns of mass violence. The article also adds to understanding of violence in Iraq, showing how Iraq’s attempts to use environmental engineering for development intersected with security concerns and ethnic marginalization to create more intensive repression.

A randomized controlled trial of cognitive analytic versus compassion-focused therapy for PTSD in Iran-Iraq War Veterans

LAY SUMMARY Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a common, debilitating mental illness with a substantial burden on individuals and society. The authors aimed to compare the effects of cognitive analytic therapy and compassion-focused therapy on Veterans with PTSD. This study showed that a 12-session program of cognitive analytic therapy or an 8-session program of compassion-focused therapy was effective for treating PTSD. The interventions controlled re-experiencing, avoidance, and hyperarousal in PTSD. Also, they decreased depression, anxiety, and numbness in patients with PTSD. Compassion-focused therapy was more effective in controlling avoidance and depression than cognitive analytic therapy.

The Ethics of Speaking about Pain: A Dialogue between Azar Nafisi and Henry James

Abstract This article offers some thoughts on the ethical manifold in speaking about others’ stories and pain, where there is an inevitable tension between the need to narrate a traumatic situation and the impossibility of narration. In Reading Lolita in Tehran; A Memoir on Books (2003), Azar Nafisi bears witness to the Iran-Iraq war of the 1980s and its effect on people’s lives, while keeping a close eye on Henry James’s personal life and works. Facing difficulties in narrating suffering in the said period, Nafisi brings Henry James to the scene not merely because of his position as an author, but because, like herself, his life collapses in the face of, and due to, war in his narrations. This essay is a parallel analysis of speakability and unspeakability, thus staking out the framework within which both Nafisi and James unfold their ethical position in speaking about pain in the “other.”

The Road to Invasion: Analyzing the Forces Behind Iraq’s Invasion of Kuwait

Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait was largely prompted by Saddam Hussein and the Baathist party’s long-standing claim over Kuwait combined with Iraq’s desperate need for wealth to rectify the country's economic crisis after the Iran-Iraq war. Additionally, the invasion can be seen as Hussein’s hubristic, direct attempt to establish Iraq as the hegemon of the Arab world in a new post-Cold War era. The disputes leading up to the invasion highlight how Iraq’s deep-rooted territorial claims and the Kuwaiti government’s refusal to surrender control of disputed territories, led to increasing tensions and hostilities between the two countries. Kuwait’s refusal to surrender to Saddam Hussein’s economic demands surrounding Iraq’s debt to Kuwait and oil exports, angered Hussein leading him to take drastic measures to repair the Iraqi economy. Invading Kuwait offered a direct solution to Iraq's economic crisis and the brewing prominent, domestic resentment at the mismanagement of the distribution of Iraqi finances. Hussein’s overconfidence in Iraq’s military capabilities and naivete led him to develop a warped perception of the U.S. resolve to defend Kuwait. His past failures made him desperate, leading him to take the considerable risk of invading Kuwait. The decision to invade Kuwait was influenced by many factors. Saddam Hussein’s misjudgements led to a humiliating loss which worsened the economic climate in Iraq. International sanctions severely limited Iraq's trade, making it more difficult to rebuild the extensive infrastructure destroyed by the invasion. Ultimately, the invasion contributed to political instability in Iraq which lay the groundwork for the Iraq war.