Blood Ion Concentrations Research Articles

Ichthyophthiriasis in the mirror carp Cyprinus carpio (L.) IV. Physiological dysfunction*

Changes in blood ion concentration, oxygen absorption, blood haemoglobin concentration and blood urea‐ammonia nitrogen level were measured in a group of mirror carp, Cyprinus carpio (L.) infected with measured numbers of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis under standardized conditions. The disease was characterized by a drop in serum sodium and magnesium and increase in serum potassium. The ability of infected fish to absorb oxygen was reduced as was their ability to tolerate dissolved oxygen concentrations under 5 ppm. Blood ureaammonia level was elevated during the disease but blood haemoglobin level remained unchanged.

Erythrocyte volume in acidified venous blood from exercising limbs.

Fatiguing muscular exercise of short duration (7–9 min) with the arms produced large increments ofpCO2 (>+30 mm Hg) and hydrogen ion concentration in venous blood from the working limbs. On the basis of these biochemical changes it might be expected to find a volumetric increase in the red cell of venous blood, since more osmotically active ions entered the erythrocytes through the chloride shift mechanism.

Renal acid excretion in infants with the respiratory distress syndrome.

Extract: Acid-base balance in blood and hydrogen ion, phosphorus concentrations, and acid-base excretion in urine were measured in 10 infants with respiratory distress syndrome (RDS), in 8 control full term infants, and in 7 control premature infants on days 1, 2, and 3 of life. Infants with RDS were acidemic in comparison with full term and premature control infants. Hydrogen ion concentrations in urine were similar for premature control subjects and acidemic infants with RDS but lower in comparison with those of full term control infants. The inability of infants with RDS, in the face of acidemia, to create an appreciable urine to plasma hydrogen ion concentration gradient provided evidence for a renal tubular deficiency in hydrogen ion secretion. Phosphate levels in urine and, as a result, titratable acid were usually low in the three groups of infants. Relative phosphaturia did occur in some infants with RDS, but, because of the deficiency in hydrogen ion secretion, urinary phosphate was often not utilized as titratable acid. At high urinary concentrations of hydrogen ion (above 400 μmEq/liter), control premature infants and acidemic infants with RDS excreted urine having lower ammonium concentration than that found in control full term infants. The inability of infants with RDS with acidemia to excrete ammonium when hydrogen ion concentrations in urine were high was evidence of a renal tubular deficiency in ammonia production. Infants with RDS differed from control premature infants by having high hydrogen ion and bicarbonate concentrations in blood in relation to higher blood PCO2 values. In addition, at low hydrogen ion concentrations in urine, infants with RDS excreted urine that contained higher concentrations of bicarbonate than that found in control premature infants. Because infants with RDS did not excrete ammonium, they could not compensate for the increased acid load and bicarbonate excretion associated with respiratory acidemia. In addition, they could not compensate for the low titratable acid, which resulted from decreased excretion of phosphate, characteristic of the newborn period. Infants with RDS did not respond to acidemia by increasing net acid excretion in urine beyond that excreted by control infants. Indeed, some infants with RDS inappropriately excreted base, thereby aggravating their already existing acidemia. Speculation: Low gestational and postnatal age is the likely etiologic factor responsible for the decreased capacity for urinary acid excretion seen in infants with RDS. The apparent improvement in renal tubula hydrogen ion secretion with increasing gestational age may be associated with maturation of an enzyme system such as carbonic anhydrase. Likewise, the apparent improvement in renal tubular ammonia production with increasing gestational age may occur in relation to maturation of an enzyme system such as glutaminase.

Acute respiratory failure.

Acute respiratory failure, either primary or secondary, can be considered a distinct clinical entity. A specific discipline for its management is evolving. Both diagnosis and management are based on measurement of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion concentrations in arterial blood. Physical signs are unreliable.

Blood ion concentrations as a function of developmental stage in the gopher snake, Pituophis melanoleucus catenifer

1. 1. Serum and blood cell Na and K concentrations and serum osmolarity and Cl were measured in embryonic, hatchling and adult gopher snakes. 2. 2. The lowest serum Na, Cl and total solute concentrations were found in an embryonic snake (132 mM Na/l, 91 mM Cl/l and 266 mOsm/l). The concentrations were intermediate in the hatchlings and highest in the adults (180 mM Na/l, 141 mM Cl/l and 335 mOsm/l). The potassium was about 6 mM/l in all cases. 3. 3. The data suggest that the embryonic environment is quite dilute and significant changes occur in the blood composition during the transition to the terrestrial adult.

Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion concentration in arterial and uterine venous blood of pregnant goats

Using indwelling plastic catheters, blood samples were drawn from an artery and a uterine vein of unanesthetized pregnant goats at selected stages in gestation. Oxygen and carbon dioxide contents, pH, and oxygen capacity were determined on the samples. The coefficient of oxygen utilization by the uterus increased from 9 per cent early in gestation to 25 per cent in the last third of the gestation period of 145 to 147 days. The CO2 tension of the arterial blood ranged between 25.1 and 31.9 mm. Hg (average, 28.6) and the pH was 7.32 to 7.49 (average, 7.41).

Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion concentrations in arterial blood during pregnancy

The arterial blood of 50 pregnant women was analyzed for oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen ion concentrations. Oxygen saturations of 87.3 to 100 per cent were found, with a mean value of 97.2 per cent. The PO2, ranged from 80.8 to 106.8 mm. Hg with a mean of 96.6. From 12 weeks’ gestation to term, the average PCO2, was 28.7 mm. Hg and the pH 7.42. The applicability of the nomograms of Severinghaus and of Van Slyke and Sendroy to human blood during pregnancy was determined.

Evaluation of sedation during cardiac catheterization of children: Analysis of PaO 2, PaCO 2, pH, and base excess determinations during hemodynamic investigation

The effect of sedation by an ataractic mixture was evaluated in 58 children undergoing cardiac catheterization. Oxygen tension, carbon dioxide tension, and hydrogen ion concentration in arterial blood were measured by polarographic and potentiometric methods in these patients, who had minimal or no heart defects. Ninety per cent had PaO2 and PaCO2 values within the adult normal range, indicating that the sedation had little effect on ventilation and oxygenation regardless of age. Significantly lower pH and calculated base excess values were found in children under 12 years of age. This tendency to acidosis in the younger children, all of whom were made to fast, may be on a metabolic basis since a comparison of pre- and postfasting determinations revealed lower fasting values. The effect of sedation by an ataractic mixture was evaluated in 58 children undergoing cardiac catheterization. Oxygen tension, carbon dioxide tension, and hydrogen ion concentration in arterial blood were measured by polarographic and potentiometric methods in these patients, who had minimal or no heart defects. Ninety per cent had PaO2 and PaCO2 values within the adult normal range, indicating that the sedation had little effect on ventilation and oxygenation regardless of age. Significantly lower pH and calculated base excess values were found in children under 12 years of age. This tendency to acidosis in the younger children, all of whom were made to fast, may be on a metabolic basis since a comparison of pre- and postfasting determinations revealed lower fasting values.

Effects of hypoxia and acidity on the initiation of respiration

The effects of hypoxia and acidity on the initiation of respiration of term lambs were studied by two methods that discern chemoreceptor activation. (1) Perfusion of the right common carotid artery with blood with lower pO2, but similar pGO2 and pH to that in the fetal carotid artery invoked slow and erratic respirations after 15 sec. in 2 of 4 lambs and none in 2 other lambs. In contrast, perfusion of blood with lowered pH as well as low pO2 invoked more rapid and persistent respirations in all 5 additional lambs studied. (2) In another group of experiments, fetal carotid sinus nerve potentials were amplified for simultaneous oscillographic visualization, for broadcast by loud speaker, and for FM tape recording. The magnitude of chemoreceptor activity was determined, during ventrlcular diastole to preclude baroreceptor activity, by integrating and summating the recorded wave forms. The degree of chemoreceptor activity, as determined during basal fetal conditions, during administration of hypoxic and hypoxic-hypercarblc gas mixtures to the ewes, and after clamping of the umbilical cord was found to be proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus, such that after cord occlusion a marked increase in chemoreceptor activity was noted. The experiments show that increased H + ion concentration in carotid arterial blood potentiates the hypoxic stimulation of chemoreceptors and that a marked chemoreceptor discharge follows clamping of the umbilical cord. The results are compatible with a hypothesis that respirations are initiated in the newborn by a summation of neural stimuli, including an important traffic of chemoreceptor impulses, to the medullary respiratory centers.

Regulation of body weight and serum composition by hagfish in various media

1. 1. When put in dilute sea water hagfish gained weight rapidly then slowly returned to their original weight. 2. 2. In concentrated sea water the animals shrank and did not return to their initial weight. 3. 3. Substitution of isosmotic sucrose for one-fifth of sea water volume caused no change in body weight and the blood ion concentrations unless sucrose penetrated the body. When sucrose permeation occurred serum ions tended towards equilibrium with external ion concentrations. 4. 4. Similar experiments with urea caused a weight gain, which was maintained without regulation. The hagfish were permeable to urea and appeared to suffer a “uremic” poisoning. 5. 5. During dilution stress, blood sodium and chloride declined in proportion to thier decrease in the medium, but magnesium and calcium remained at initial concentrations. 6. 6. The results indicate that hagfish are very permeable to water but not to ions, particularly calcium and magnesium. 7. 7. Hagfish drink sea water, but analysis of the gut fluid failed to reveal any substantial differences in composition between it and sea water. 8. 8. It is suggested that the permeability of hagfish to water and lack of regulatory mechanisms for sodium chloride are the primary causes of their lack of osmotic homeostasis an therefore, their limited weight regulation.

Ionenregulation bei zwei Arten estuariner Kurzschwanzkrebse

In low salinities sodium, potassium and calcium ion concentrations in the blood of both species, Hernigrapsus nudus and H. oregonensis, are hypertonic to the media. In high salinities, ion regulation is less effective and concentrations approach isotonicity. This regulation is effected by extra-renal processes, since U/B ratios approximate unity. Blood concentration of magnesium is regulated in both species at a hypotonic level, one-third that of the medium concentration in all salinities. It is suggested that the principal site of ion uptake from the medium in Hernigrapsus is the lamelIar epithelium of the gill. Winter animals of both species appear to be more effective regulators of the calcium ion in low salinities. All other ion concentrations are similar, summer and winter. No consistent temperature effect could be demonstrated for ion concentration in blood or urine. The principal function of the antennary glands is to maintain a blood magnesium concentration hypotonic to all salinities. It is suggested that this regulation of magnesium is necessary to facilitate neuromuscular transmission and is a characteristic feature of ionregulation in active decapod crustacea. Ion regulatory ability of the two species differed only with respect to winter blood levels of sodium. H. oregonensis more effectively regulates this ion at hypotonic blood levels in high salinities. Chloride regulation in the two species demonstrates that the blood is hyperosmotic in low salinities and hyposmotic in higher salinities. Urine is hyperosmotic over the entire salinity range and is approximately 35 to 40 o/0 higher than the blood. Blood concentrations of chloride approximate a gradient of 15 to 30% above the experimental media. U/B ratios suggest that the antennary gland is not solely responsible for the regulation of this ion. Chloride regulation in the muscle of H. nudus demonstrates that in a high blood chloride environment, muscle chloride remains low, about one-third that of blood. Consideration of muscle cations of H. nudus shows that blood sodium is about

Respiratory control in uremic acidosis.

Lambertsen and co-workers were able to correlate increments in ventilation produced by a number of acute experimental acid-base derangements in man with combined shifts in H ion concentration in blood and cerebrospinal fluid. Comparing hyperventilation in a group of uremic acidotic patients with ventilation levels of a control group by the same criteria shows that the measured values in uremic subjects are lower than those predicted. The tentative conclusion may be drawn that in chronic renal failure the respiratory center is adapted to blood acidosis by an elevation of its threshold level for the H ion stimulus. Submitted on August 2, 1962

The Blood Gas Content and Alkalinity of the Arterial Blood of Rabbits during Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

In the present investigations the hydrogen ion concentration in blood was determined by means of the chinhydron electrode and gasanalytic method as well. In the former, too, the measurement was conducted at the body temperature of the rabbit at the moment of taking the blood sample. Rabbits were poisoned by injecting CO gas subcutaneously in a dose of 420-700 c. c. The gases in the blood, CO2, O2and CO, the CO2capacity and thepH of blood were simultaneously determined for the blood samples taken from time to time. The chief results may be stated as follows: The CO injection resulted in a fluctuation in the bloodpH, but the direction of fluctuation was variable; that is, in some cases alkalosis occurred, and lasted or progressed for several hours or turned towards acidosis after a lapse of a few hours, and in the other cases acidosis only resulted. The arterial CO2 decreased on the CO injection, and in the cases of severe acidosis it was rapid and remarkable. In the majority of cases an acceleration occurred in the rate of respiration on injecting CO, but only for a short interval of time, and in the other cases no acceleration took place. And in the cases of severe acidosis, where the arterial CO2 was excessively lost, no hyperventilation occurred or else the volume of ventilation was considerably depressed. It may be noted further that in the cases of acidosis urination occurred only seldom, contrary to those of alkalosis. A dministration of NaHCO3 to the animal under the influence of CO gas acted to increase the arterial CO2 and pH for a while, and was beneficial to the life of the animals.

THE REACTIONS OF CRAYFISHES TO GRADIENTS OF DISSOLVED CARBON DIOXIDE AND ACETIC AND HYDROCHLORIC ACIDS

1. Crayfishes sense the increase in carbon dioxide and acetic and hydrochloric acids in a gradient.2. Both propinquus and virilis are intoxicated by carbon dioxide; virilis is also intoxicated by acetic acid but to a lesser degree.3. The four species are susceptible to high concentrations of carbon dioxide and when subjected to high concentrations die in the following order, virilis, propinquus, diogenes and immunis.4. Propinquus reacts negatively to the higher concentrations of carbon dioxide in a gradient, but when the total amount of acid present is large, the negative reaction may be interfered with by the direct detrimental effect of the acid.5. Virilis reacts less definitely to the higher concentrations of carbon dioxide in a gradient than does propinquus. This is true whether the total concentration of the acid is large or small.6. Both diogenes and immunis react more or less irregular to carbon dioxide due possibly to the lesser sensitiveness of these two species to this acid.7. Both propinquus and virilis react negatively to the higher concentrations of acetic acid in gradients of this acid; propinquus reacts definitely in the presence of both high and low total concentrations; virilis reacts definitely to low total concentrations, but not so definitely to high total concentrations; diogenes reacts irregular and less intense than the first two species while immunis reacts more definitely but with low intensity.8. All four species react more strongly to hydrochloric acid than acetic acid and more strongly to acetic acid than carbon dioxide.9. The intensity of avoiding reactions of all species to all acids tested as is shown by turnings only are in the following order; propinquus, virilis, immunis and diogenes.10. The intensity of avoiding reactions of all four species varies directly as the total concentrations of the acids, and probably directly as the hydrogen ion concentration.11. Rapid modification of behavior is shown by all four species. This modification may be due to the increased sensitiveness on the part of the animals, the increased sensitiveness being the result of higher ion concentration in the animal's blood.12. The specific reactions of the crayfishes in gradients of carbon dioxide may be correlated with their habitats.