Iodine Content Of Salt Research Articles

New Development Quantification Methods for Salt Iodine and Urinary Iodine Using Microfluidics Based Nanotechnology

In Malaysia, the first Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD) survey was conducted in 1996 and it was discovered that Peninsular Malaysia did not have IDD problem until latter studies showed goitre occurrence of 34.7% in Hulu Langat district and urinary iodine lower than the adequate level of (100-199 ug/L) in Perak and Pahang states (Selamat et al., 2010). Baseline and periodical sampling of children and pregnant woman urine and imported salt commodities for the consumption of the population is mandatory for iodine measurement. Thus, development of quantitative methods of measurement of salt and food iodine is crucial for implementation of the USI program nationwide. In this study, interdigitated electrode (IDE) biosensor, a rapid, sensitive and selective method has been developed to determine the iodine content in both urine and salt. This method includes functionalization and silanization step using 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane (APTES). The I-V characterization of IDE biosensor was performed using (Keithley 2450), Kickstart software and Probestation. It measures the amount of current flow through IDE which is directly proportional to the concentration of iodine in both urine and salt. Hence, IDE biosensor is proven to be a rapid, selective, sensitive method and can be developed as a new nanotechnology for the elimination of Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD) among children and pregnant woman.

Assessment of iodine deficiency disorders among population of district Chamba, Himachal Pradesh

Background: Iodine insufficiency is prevalent throughout the world, and is rated as one of the most significant public health concerns in more than 125 countries. Secondary to the insufficient dietary consumption of iodine, almost two billion individuals are prone to suffer from iodine deficiency disorders worldwide. The present survey was conducted in district Chamba of Himachal Pradesh in order to assess the extent of iodine deficiency disorders, 55 years after the initiation of salt iodisation programme.Methods: A cross sectional survey was conducted in district Chamba of Himachal Pradesh. A close ended pretested questionnaire was used to collect the socio-demographic information of the participants. Iodine content of salt and water was assessed with the use of I-Check and AQUA test kits in the households.Results: A total of 230 households were surveyed for the consumption of iodised salt which showed that 100% of the study population was using packet iodised salt for consumption. Majority of the population (92.6%) were placing their salt container near chulah in their kitchen and 73.5% were adding the salt in the beginning of the cooking followed by 16.1% in the middle of the cooking. Iodine content of salt sample collected revealed that 95.7% contain only 7 ppm iodine and 99.6% of the water sample contains less than 0.1 level iodine in water testing.Conclusions: The results of study indicated that population of district Chamba is using iodised salt but there is still need of strengthening of monitoring system as well as health education regarding the cooking practices in the households.

Geographical influences on the iodine status in pregnant women, neonates, and school-age children in China

BackgroundPregnant women, neonates, and school-age children are vulnerable to iodine deficiency. The iodine contents in the environment (drinking water and household salt for cooking) vary by geographical location in China. The aim of this study was to assess the iodine status in vulnerable groups from different geographical zones and analyze the iodine content in household salt and drinking water from these zones.MethodsIn coastal and inland regions of Zhejiang Province, China, samples of spot urine, drinking water, and household salt for cooking from both pregnant women and school-age children were determined for iodine concentration between 2017 and 2018. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels from neonates born between 2014 and 2015 were acquired from the Newborns Screening Information System. The iodine status of the vulnerable populations was assessed according to the criteria recommended by the World Health Organization.ResultsThe median UIC of pregnant women was significantly lower in the coastal region (113.0 μg/L) than the inland region (134.9 μg/L; p < 0.001). The median UICs of pregnant women from these two regions were below the lower optimal iodine cutoff level of 150 μg/L. The percentage of neonates with elevated TSH (> 5 mIU/L) was significantly higher in the coastal region (15.8%) than the inland region (10.5%; p < 0.001). The percentage of neonates with elevated TSH from each region decreased within the range of mild iodine deficiency of 3–19.9%. The median UIC of the coastal school-age children was 156.0 μg/L, and the median UIC of inland children was 181.5 μg/L. Both medians fell within the recommended optimal iodine range of 100–299 μg/L. The iodine concentrations in drinking water varied from 1.0 μg/L in the inland region to 2.0 μg/L in the coastal region. The proportion of households that consumed iodized salt was lower in the coastal region (nearly 65%) than the inland region (approximately 95%).ConclusionsIn these two regions with low iodine contents in drinking water, both pregnant women and neonates were iodine-deficient, although school-age children were iodine-sufficient. Urgent efforts are needed to improve the iodine status of pregnant women and neonates.

Knowledge and practice of mothers of school-going children regarding iodized salt and its association with the psychology testing of the students

Context:Iodized salt is the mainstay intervention to tackle iodine-related disorders. In spite of the government's efforts to make iodized salt available in more than 90% of the households across the country, there are sketchy details on its use. Since the main propagators of this intervention are the mothers cooking in kitchen, this study was conceived, as a corollary to a larger micronutrient assessment study among school-going children.Aims:The aim of this was to assess knowledge, practice of mothers of school-going children (6-16 years) regarding use of iodized salt, and to see any association between the simple psychological testing of the children and the iodine content of the salt used in home kitchen and the contributing factors thereof.Methods and Materials:A cross-sectional study was conducted by interviewing mothers of 240 school-going children of age groups 6-11 years and 12-16 years from six schools of Bhubaneswar using a semi-structured questionnaire regarding their knowledge on iodine and its deficiency and the practice of using iodized salt. MBI kit was used to assess the iodine content of salt used at home. The psychology adeptness of students was assessed using the standardized and validated coding, standard progressive matrices, and colored progressive matrices tests.Statistical Analysis:Analysis was done using SPSS version 16, wherein the sociodemographic data were shown in proportions, and the iodine content was taken as the dependent continuous variable and means reported. For the sake of associations with intelligence and cognition, a binary logistic regression model was drawn.Results:It reports that 47.5% of mothers knew that iodized salt is good for health and iodine content measured using MBI kit was 15 ppm and above for 71.7% of the sample. Further, iodine content in salt is seen as protective for cognition and also for IQ.Conclusions:The knowledge of the mothers’ needs reinforcement regarding iodine and related disorders and the benefits of iodized salt. The aim of the National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Program can only be achieved by generating awareness, regular follow-up, and improving the iodization of salt.

Iodine Deficiency during Preconception Period of Adolescent Girls Residing in a District of Rajasthan, India.

Background:In India, iodine deficiency (ID) still remains a serious concern even after five decades of enormous efforts. ID during the preconception period of adolescent girls may negatively affect future neonates, resulting in neonatal hypothyroidism. Hence, the present study was conducted to assess the prevalence of goiter and associated factors among adolescent girls in a poor socioeconomic district of Rajasthan.Methodology:A cross-sectional study was conducted during January–March 2015 in Tonk district of Rajasthan. A total of 1912 adolescent girls were selected from thirty schools using population proportionate to size sampling. Adolescent girls were clinically examined for thyroid using palpation method. Casual urine (n = 344) and salt samples (n = 370) were collected from a subgroup of girls for the estimation of urinary iodine concentration (UIC) and iodine content in salt, respectively.Results:The overall goiter prevalence was 15.3% (95% confidence interval 13.6%–16.9%) and the median UIC was 266 μg/l (interquartile range: 150–300 μg/l) among 1912 adolescent girls (age, 15.7 ± 1.4 years). Around 16.8% of the families of adolescent girls were consuming salt with inadequate iodine (<15 ppm). Goiter prevalence was statistically significantly different with respect to age groups (P = 0.03). There was no statistically significant difference in goiter prevalence with respect to iodine content of salt (P = 0.98) and UIC (P = 0.41). The median UIC increased with an increase in consumption of iodine content of salt from inadequacy to adequacy (P = 0.15).Conclusion:Adolescent girls, residing in an underdeveloped district, are in the transition phase from mild ID (goiter prevalence 15.3%) to iodine sufficiency (median UIC 266 μg/l).

Urine iodine level and multiple risks are associated with thyroid structural abnormalities among adults in Heilongjiang Province, China.

The prevalence of adult thyroid structural abnormalities has increased significantly worldwide. However, no study has examined the thyroid structure and urine iodine levels of adults in Heilongjiang Province in the last decade. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the rate and risk factors of thyroid structural abnormalities among the residents of this province. A probability proportional sampling method was used, and a total of 3,645 individuals in Heilongjiang Province were included. The subjects was asked to complete a thyroid ultrasound and fill out a questionnaire. Furthermore, urine iodine levels and salt iodine content were determined, and multivariate logistic regression was used to identify the independent risk factors for thyroid diseases. The prevalence of thyroid structural abnormalities in Heilongjiang Province was 56.0%. Univariate analysis showed that there were significant differences between the structural abnormalities group and the normal thyroid group in terms of sex, age, body mass index, hypertension, diabetes, smoking, alcohol consumption, frequency of seafood consumption and pickled food consumption, employment status, and urine iodine level (p<0.05). Multivariate analysis showed that the following were independent risk factors of thyroid disease: female, increased age, hypertension, diabetes, cigarette smoking frequent seafood consumption, employment, and urine iodine levels. The prevalence of thyroid structural abnormalities in adults in Heilongjiang Province was relatively high. Therefore, to help prevent the occurrence of thyroid disease in adults in Heilongjiang Province, the risk factors of thyroid structural abnormalities should be better understood.

Iodine nutritional status and intake levels in adult from different water iodine content areas of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region in 2017

To understand the iodine nutrition status of adults in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region under the effective control of iodine deficiency disease. Using stratified cluster random sampling method, in the district to determine water iodine median&lt;10 μg/L and ≥10 μg/L of urban and rural areas, a total of 10 survey points, deals from the collecting water deals of extracting water iodine content detection. Adults over 18 years old were randomly selected from 30 households at each survey site to carry out a survey on dietary iodine intake, and the contents of dietary salt iodine and adult urine iodine were tested. The median iodine content in water in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region was 4. 4(2. 3, 13. 6)μg/L. The median iodine content of household salt was 27(24, 30) mg/kg. The median urinary iodine content in adults was 168(103, 259)μg/L. The average dietary iodine intake of adults in the region was 312 μg/d. The water iodine content in the environment outside Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region is relatively low, and the iodine nutritional status and dietary iodine intake of adults are generally at the appropriate level. However, urban adults with relatively low water iodine content and good economic status have a higher risk of iodine deficiency. Iodized salt is the main source of dietary iodine for adults in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. Adults in poorer rural and urban areas rely more heavily on iodized salt.

Limits to commercially iodized salt to address dietary iodine deficiency in rural Papua New Guinea.

Fortifying commercial table salt with iodine is the principal strategy used globally to prevent dietary iodine deficiency. However, the costs of providing fortified salt to remote communities may result in it not being locally available or too expensive for many households. This study shows that barriers to consuming adequately iodized salt remain significant for remote rural households in Papua New Guinea (PNG). Using data from a rural household survey conducted in four areas of PNG in 2018, two issues are examined. First, we contrast the characteristics of households that reported consuming or not consuming iodized table salt, respectively. Second, the adequacy of the iodine content of samples of table salt consumed was assessed in the laboratory. Nine percent of the 1,026 survey households reported not consuming iodized table salt. These households tend to live in remote communities, are among the poorest households, have received no formal education, and have experienced recent food insecurity. Second, 17 percent of the 778 salt samples tested had inadequate iodine. The brand of salt most commonly consumed had the highest share of samples with inadequate iodine levels. Particularly in remote communities, ensuring that individuals consume sufficient iodine will require going beyond salt iodization to use other approaches to iodine supplementation. To ensure that the iodine intake of those using commercial table salt is adequate, closer monitoring of the iodine content in table salt produced or imported into PNG and enforcement of salt iodization regulations is required.

Prevalence of Goiter and its Association with Consumption of Iodized Salt among School Children, in a Rural Area, Tamilnadu

Background: Iodine Deficiency Disorders is a significant public health problem all over the world.Iodine is essential element for thyroid function, necessary for normal growth, development and functioning of brain and body. Objectives: To estimate the prevalence of goiter among school children and to assess the prevalence of useof iodized salt. Material and Methods: A Cross sectional study conducted among Children between 6-12 years of agein Mappedu area.A pre-tested questionnaire, Rapid test kit to find iodine content of salt and clinical examination to assess goitre was done for the study subjects.The sample size calculated was120. Dataanalysis: Proportions and chi-square was used for analysis. Results: 65% were using iodized salt and remaining 35% were using non-iodised salt.The prevalence of goiter was found to be 17(14.2%). Conclusion: One-third of children and their family were not consuming adequately iodized salt. The consumption of iodized salt is still less in the community and Iodine Deficiency Disorders continue to be a public health problem.

Revalence of Goiter and its Association with Consumption of Iodized Salt among School Children, in a Rural Area, Tamilnadu

Background: Iodine Deficiency Disorders is a significant public health problem all over the world. Iodine is essential element for thyroid function, necessary for normal growth, development and functioning of brain and body. Objectives: To estimate the prevalence of goiter among school children and to assess the prevalence of useof iodized salt. Material and Methods: A Cross sectional study conducted among Children between 6-12 years of ageinMappedu area.A pre-tested questionnaire, Rapid test kit to find iodine content of salt and clinical examination to assess goitre was done for the study subjects.The sample size calculated was120.Dataanalysis:Proportions and chi-square was used for analysis. Results: 65% were using iodized salt and remaining 35% were using non-iodised salt.The prevalence of goiter was found to be 17(14.2%). Conclusion: One-third of children and their family were not consuming adequately iodized salt. The consumption of iodized salt is still less in the community and Iodine Deficiency Disorders continue to be a public health problem.

A Cross-sectional study assessing the Prevalence ofIodine Deficiency Disorders among school children aged6 to 12 years in Tumakuru district of Karnataka

Background Iodine deficiency disorders IDD constitute a major public health problem in India. Deficiency of iodine can cause physical and mental retardation cretinism abortions stillbirth deaf mutism squint amp various types of goitre. Methodology A community ndash based cross section survey was undertaken during the February-March 2019 in Tumakuru district of Karnataka to find out prevalence of goitre estimate urinary iodine excretion in 6-12 years old school children and household salt iodine concentrations. 2875 school children aged 6-12 years were examined for goitre. Urine samples of 270 childrenwere collected for estimation of urinary iodine using Sandell-Kolthoff method. Household salt samples of the 540 selected children from schools were analyzed for its iodine content by standard iodometric titration method. Results The overall prevalence of Goitre was found to be 9.5 among children examined. The median urinary iodine excretion UIE was 104 mugL. All the household salt samples were adequately iodized having Iodine content of gt15ppm. Conclusion Considering prevalence of goitre in 6-12 years children Tumakuru district is lsquoendemicrsquo for IDD. But as inferred from median UIE obtained IDD is not a public health problem of significance. Household level salt is adequately iodized as per NIDDCP recommendations

A study of prevalence of goiter among school children in Kolar

Background: Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) constitute the single largest cause of preventable brain damage worldwide leading to learning disabilities and psychomotor impairment. Nearly 266 million school children worldwide have insufficient iodine intake. IDD was found to be a public health problem in 47 countries. Since the information on current prevalence of goiter in Kolar was not available, the present study was undertaken.Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among school children aged 6-12 years in Kolar taluk. A total of 650 children (325 urban and 325 rural) were selected for goiter examination by multistage random cluster sampling technique. A total of 150 children were tested for the median urinary concentration and 150 salt samples were tested from the households of the study population.Results: The total goiter rate was 6.6% among primary school children aged 6-12 years with a significant difference between ages. As the age increased the goiter prevalence also increased. The median urinary iodine excretion level was found to be 137 µg/l and 92.7% salt samples had &gt;15 ppm iodine content.Conclusions: Present study shows mild goiter prevalence in primary school children in Kolar and an adequate iodine content of salt and urine.

Iodine status of 8 to 10 years old children within 20 years following compulsory salt iodization policy in Shanghai, China

BackgroundIn 1996, Shanghai implemented universal salt iodization and has became the last provincial unit in China to carry out this intervention. In this study, we summarized achievements in past 20 years, to provide suggestions and evidence for the next stage of iodine supplementation.MethodsThis study summarized and analyzed monitoring data of children from 1997, 1999, 2005, 2011, 2014, and 2017 in Shanghai. In each monitoring year, 30 streets or towns were selected using the probability-proportional-to-size sampling technique. One primary school was selected from each street or town by a simple random sampling technique. From each school, 40 children aged 8 to 10 years were randomly selected. The number of children was divided equally by sex and age.ResultsIn 1997, 1999, 2005, 2011, 2014, and 2017, median urinary iodine (MUI) was 227.5 μg/L, 214.3 μg/L, 198.1 μg/L, 181.6 μg/L, 171.4 μg/L, and 183.0 μg/L, goiter rate was 3.07, 0.40, 0.08, 0.08, 0.86, and 1.90%, and median thyroid volume (MTvol) was 2.9 mL, 1.2 mL, 2.4 mL, 1.0 mL, 1.8 mL, and 2.8 mL, respectively. There was a linear correlation between goiter rate and median thyroid volume (MTvol) (r = 0.95, P = 0.014). Household salt iodine concentration (SIC) was dropping every monitoring (P < 0.05). There was a significant difference among different household SIC groups in MUI in 1999 and 2017, and in MTvol in 1999 (P < 0.05). No significant differences were detected in the other years.ConclusionsIn Shanghai, the iodine status of 8 to 10 years old children is adequate. Household SIC have little effect on iodine status of children. Future studies should analyze the dietary sources of iodine, especially from pre-packaged and prepared-away-from-home foods or meals. The regular monitoring of iodine status is important to human health.

Estimation of iodine content of commercially available consumable salts in and around Madhuranthagam, Tamil Nadu, South India

Iodine is an essential micronutrient in the thyroid hormone synthesis, hence inadequate or excess iodine may result in thyroid dysfunction. Hence the dietary iodine intake has to be monitored regularly for the recommended levels. With other confounding factors in dietary source, salt fortification with iodine was implemented by World Health Organisation (WHO) and United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) in 1993. Inspite of Universal Salt Iodization (USI), Hypothyroidism is believed to be a common health issue in India and Worldwide. Hence this study was done on a small scale primarily by estimating the salt iodine content of commercially available consumable salts. Salt packets were collected from the retail shops in and around Madhuranthagam. The iodine content in the salt samples was estimated and expressed in parts per mllion (p.p.m) based on the Titration method recommended by WHO. The results were analysed by the number of samples (in percentage) with adequate, less and excess iodine content as per the WHO recommendation. Keywords: Consumable salt iodine, Iodine status, Thyroid dysfunction, Hypothyroidism, Universal salt iodization (USI).

Analysis of urinary iodine level and thyroid function in Tibetan adults in Lhasa

Objective To investigate the distribution of urinary iodine level and its relationship with thyroid function in Tibetan adults in Lhasa. Methods Tibetan residents living in Lhasa and its surrounding countryside were recruited by the method of multistage randomized cluster sampling. Their salt iodine, drinking water iodine, urinary iodine, and thyroid function levels were detected. According to the urinary iodine level, these subjects were divided into the iodine deficiency group (urinary iodine<100 μg/L), the iodine enough group (urine iodine 100-199 μg/L), the iodine adequate group (urine iodine 200-299 μg/L) and the iodine excessive group (urine iodine≥300 μg/L). The differences in thyroid function among various groups were compared. Results A total of 2 235 subjects were included in the study. The overall level of urinary iodine was in skewed distribution, with a median (upper and lower quartiles) of 154 (99, 229) μg/L. The proportion of subjects with insufficient iodine intake was 25.7%, while those of the enough, adequate, and excessive groups were 41.5%, 21.3%, and 11.5%, respectively. There was no significant difference in urine iodine level between males and females [152(95, 219)μg/L vs 155(100, 232)μg/L P>0.05]. The urinary iodine levels in residents of urban were higher than those in rural residents [157(101, 232) μg/L vs 140(92, 200) μg/L, P 0.05). The levels of thyroid peroxidase antibody (TPOAb) and thyroglobulin antibody (TGAb) were gradually decreased with the increase of urinary iodine level (P<0.05). Conclusion More than 50% of Tibetans are at the status of low iodine and high iodine intakes in Lhasa. Although the salt iodine content meets national standards, the drinking water iodine content is lower than that standard. Key words: Lhasa; Tibetan; Urinary iodine; Thyroid function

Iodine nutritional status and prevalence of goitre among school going children: a cross-sectional study to assess progress towards universal salt iodization in Tikamgarh district of Madhya Pradesh.

Iodine deficiency disorders (IDD) has been a major public health challenge for the Indian subcontinent over many years. Our study was conducted in Tikamgarh district of Madhya Pradesh, an iodine deficiency disorders-endemic district, with the objective to estimate total goitre rate and iodine nutrition status. A cross-sectional study with 30 cluster sampling was conducted between June to July 2016 among school-going children in the age group of 6-12 years. Ninety children from each school (30x90=2700) were selected for the assessment of Goitre. Total 540 salt samples and 270 urine samples were collected to estimate salt iodine content from their house-hold and urine iodine excretion (UIE) respectively. A total of 150 households and 30 shopkeepers were interviewed to understand the awareness level for salt iodization. Goitre rate in Tikamgarh district was 1.9% with prevalence of grade I & II was 1.7% and 0.2% respectively. The median UIE level was 200 mcg/L. The 20% the population had iodine deficiency, 28.9% population had adequate iodine nutrition and 51.1% population had either more than adequate level of iodine. The 72.4% of the population consume adequately iodized salt (>=15 ppm). Our study concludes that Tikamgarh district is non-endemic for IDDs against the earlier classification as an IDD-endemic district. About 20% population has 'iodine deficiency' and approximately 51.1% population has 'more than adequate iodine intake'. We recommend stringent programme monitoring, undertake periodic assessment of IDD and explore manifestations of excess iodine intake (>=300 mcg/L) such as Iodine-induced hyperthyroidism in future.

Determination of Reference Intervals of Ratios of Concentrations of Urinary Iodine to Creatinine and Thyroid Hormone Concentrations in Pregnant Women Consuming Adequate Iodine in Harbin, Heilongjiang Province.

The objectives of this study were to explore reference intervals of ratios of concentrations of urinary iodine to creatinine (UIC/UCr) in pregnant women, to determine specific reference intervals for thyroid hormone concentrations (FT3, FT4, TSH) in the first trimester of pregnancy, and provide a comprehensive evaluation of iodine nutritional status and thyroid function. Cross-sectional data analysis, including questionnaires and thyroid ultrasonograms, were used to exclude subjects who had a history of thyroid disease, a family history of thyroid disease, or thyroid morphological abnormalities. Tests of thyroid hormone were evaluated together with urinary iodine concentration (UIC), urinary creatinine concentration (UCr), and salt iodine concentration in pregnant women. For the sample of pregnant women eligible for inclusion, the 95% reference intervals of the bilateral limits of UIC/UCr and thyroid hormone concentrations in pregnant women were determined by the percentile method. Pregnant women were recruited in Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, a particular geographical area of China, where iodine nutrition is adequate. The median UIC was 141.47μg/L, while the median UIC/UCr was 141.12μg/g. The reference intervals of thyroid hormone concentrations in the first trimester were FT3 3.63-6.12pmol/L, FT4 11.89-22.91pmol/L, and TSH 0.013-3.814mIU/L. The reference intervals of UIC/UCr were 52.47 to 532.09μg/g (first trimester 47.25-353.91μg/g, second trimester 57.95-639.08μg/g, third trimester 46.98-494.73μg/g).The established UIC/UCr medical reference intervals and thyroid hormone concentration reference intervals may be used for iodine nutritional assessment and thyroid disease screening in pregnant women.

Effectiveness of increased salt iodine concentration on iodine status: trend analysis of cross-sectional national studies in Switzerland.

Despite longstanding voluntary salt iodisation in Switzerland, data suggest inadequate iodine intake in vulnerable population groups. In response, the salt iodine concentration was increased from 20 to 25mg/kg and we assessed the impact on iodine status. We conducted a cross-sectional national study in school-age children (n = 731), women of reproductive age (n = 353) and pregnant women (n = 363). We measured urinary iodine concentration (UIC) and urinary sodium concentration (UNaC) in spot urine samples. The current median UIC was compared with national data from 1999, 2004 and 2009. We measured TSH, total T4 and thyroglobulin (Tg) on dried blood spot samples collected in women. The median UIC (bootstrapped 95% CI) was 137µg/L (131, 143µg/L) in school children, 88µg/L (72, 103µg/L) in women of reproductive age and 140µg/L (124, 159µg/L) in pregnant women. Compared to 2009, the median UIC increased modestly in school children (P < 0.001), but did not significantly change in pregnant women (P = 0.417). Estimated sodium intake exceeded the recommendations in all population groups. The prevalence of thyroid disorders in women was low, but Tg was elevated in 13% of the pregnant women. Iodine intake is overall adequate in Swiss school-age children, but only borderline sufficient in pregnant and non-pregnant women, despite high salt intakes and satisfactory household coverage with iodized salt. Our findings suggest increasing the concentration of iodine in salt may not improve iodine intakes in women if iodised salt is not widely used in processed foods. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02312466.

Poor Iodine Knowledge, Coastal Region, and Non-Iodized Salt Consumption Linked to Low Urinary Iodine Excretion in Zhejiang Pregnant Women.

Background: Iodine deficiency in pregnant women, defined as a median urinary iodine concentration (UIC) of less than 150 μg/L, is an important public health issue. To improve their iodine intake, it is important to understand the knowledge and practices regarding iodine. Methods: A cross-sectional investigation was conducted on 2642 pregnant women during 2016–2017 in Zhejiang province, China. A 3-point Likert scale questionnaire was used to record knowledge. The UIC and iodine content in household salt were determined. Results: Coastal participants were iodine deficient (median UIC 127.6 μg/L) while inland participants were iodine sufficient (median UIC 151.0 μg/L). The average knowledge scores were significantly lower for the coastal participants (24.2 points vs. 25 points for the inland participants; p < 0.001). The percentage for iodized salt consumption was significantly lower for the coastal participants (88.9% vs. 96.0% for those inland; p < 0.001). A generalized linear model analysis showed that non-iodized salt consumption, coastal region, and low knowledge scores were independently associated with a low UIC. Conclusions: Comprehensive interventional strategies are needed to develop to achieve an optimal iodine status. We recommend that coastal pregnant women should take iodine supplements based on the consumption of iodized salt, and improvement of iodine-related knowledge.

Effect of Reduction in Iodine Content of Edible Salt on the Iodine Status of the Chinese Population

Effect of Reduction in Iodine Content of Edible Salt on the Iodine Status of the Chinese Population