Involvement Load Hypothesis Research Articles

Exploring the perception of English lecturers about incidental vocabulary learning and involvement load hypothesis in their classrooms

Despite extensive research on vocabulary acquisition, limited attention has been given to how these theories are applied in English as a foreign language (EFL) teaching practices, particularly in Indonesia. This qualitative case study addresses this gap by exploring English lecturers' perceptions and use of incidental vocabulary learning (IVL) and the involvement load hypothesis (ILH) in their classrooms. Data were collected through interviews and classroom observations with five English lecturers from universities in Malang, Indonesia, and analyzed using thematic analysis to identify key patterns and themes. The findings revealed that all participants recognized the importance of vocabulary in language learning and preferred implicit learning methods, such as exposure to authentic language in literature and films. However, the integration of theoretical concepts like vocabulary size and frequency into teaching practices was limited due to constraints such as time and lack of dedicated vocabulary instruction. Moreover, participants were unfamiliar with the ILH, though some of its elements were present in their teaching. The study suggests that better dissemination of research and professional development is essential to bridge the gap between theory and practice, ultimately improving vocabulary instruction in EFL contexts.

과업 유형이 고등학교 영어 학습자의 동사 하위범주화 자질 학습에 미치는 영향

Purpose: This study investigated the influence of task involvement levels on Korean high school students' learning of verb subcategorization knowledge. Based on the Task-induced involvement load hypothesis in vocabulary acquisition, we analyzed whether different tasks with varying levels of involvement affect the learning of sentence structures inevitably derived from verbs. Methods: Sixty homogeneous Korean second-year high school students were selected and were divided into three groups, for applying different types of tasks. We used nine verbs belonging to the “putting verb” category, and different levels of task involvement were presented to each group. Pre- and post-tests were conducted to assess the students' knowledge of verb subcategorization. Results: The results indicated that there was no statistically significant difference between task involvement levels and learning of verb subcategorization. Furthermore, a discrepancy was observed between the proficiency levels determined by the national English test and the knowledge of verb subcategorization. Conclusion: The distinction in task involvement did not significantly affect the learning of the subcategorization features of verbs. However, given the disparity between knowledge of verb subcategorization features and nationwide English proficiency assessment results, it is proposed that there is a need for English education to develop proficiency in verbal communication skills.

Involvement Load Hypothesis: A New Trend in EFL Contexts

Involvement Load Hypothesis: A New Trend in EFL Contexts

Effects of Task-Induced Involvement and Time on Task on Incidental L2 Vocabulary Acquisition

This study investigates the impact of task-induced involvement and time on task on incidental second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition. Utilizing a 3 (task-induced involvement) × 2 (time on task) × 2 (post-test time) research design, three task-induced involvement conditions were employed based on the Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH): reading and gap-fill task, reading and sentence-making task, and reading and translation task, with corresponding involvement load (IL) indices of 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Two time-on-task conditions were implemented: uncontrolled time on task, where participants in different groups completed tasks with varied durations, and controlled time on task, where participants in different groups completed tasks with roughly equal durations. Five intact classes comprising 256 Chinese middle school students participated and were randomly assigned to one of five designed tasks aimed at learning 10 carefully selected target words. The results of a three-way repeated measures ANOVA indicate a significant three-way interaction effect among task-induced involvement, time on task, and post-test time, as well as a significant two-way interaction effect between task-induced involvement and time on task. These findings demonstrate that task-induced involvement and time on task interact to significantly influence both initial acquisition and retention of incidental L2 vocabulary. Specifically, under uncontrolled time conditions, tasks with higher ILs and longer durations yield better initial vocabulary gains and retention, partially supporting the ILH. Conversely, under controlled time conditions, tasks with lower ILs exhibit superior initial vocabulary gains and retention, contradicting the predictions of the ILH. Relevant implications are also discussed.

A systematic review of English-as-a-foreign-language vocabulary learning activities for primary school students

Abstract For young learners of English as a foreign language (EFL), the initial acquisition of English vocabulary is crucial to English proficiency. This study conducted a systematic review of studies of primary school students’ EFL vocabulary learning to identify types of activities for learning new vocabulary. A total of 57 vocabulary learning activities from 22 studies were coded, yielding ten types of intentional and eight types of incidental learning activities. The intentional learning activities involved more psychological conditions than the incidental ones. Following the involvement load hypothesis (ILH), we identified activities encompassing various combinations of psychological conditions inducing the highest and lowest involvement loads (ILs); the more such conditions an activity encompasses, the deeper the vocabulary learning processes, and the higher the IL, the better the retention. The comparison between the activity types provides useful information for teachers and researchers to design age-appropriate English vocabulary learning activities.

The Effects of Writing Tasks on Vocabulary Learning among Korean EFL Learners and Involvement Load Hypothesis

The Effects of Writing Tasks on Vocabulary Learning among Korean EFL Learners and Involvement Load Hypothesis

‘Solve the crossword’: an analysis of task design in EFL materials from a vocabulary perspective

ABSTRACT Learning vocabulary is a central and time-consuming endeavour for a language learner and it has thus been suggested that the foreign language classroom has to supply explicit support for students’ vocabulary development. A major source of explicit word focus is vocabulary exercises in teaching materials and students’ learning can be facilitated if they are designed in a way that is conducive to learning. Few studies have so far sought to establish what learning opportunities tasks in materials provide. The present study reports an analysis of the vocabulary exercises in three series of Swedish intermediate EFL materials, focusing on target vocabulary and learning conditions. The target vocabulary was analysed in terms of frequency distribution in general English and the learning conditions provided were studied using a modified version of the Involvement Load Hypothesis. The results indicate that learning is facilitated through extensive retrieval opportunities in the material. However, it was also found that the exercises seldom require students to use the target vocabulary and that it comprises primarily high-frequency words, that is, words that the learners are likely to already know. It is therefore concluded that a more systematic approach to vocabulary has to be adopted by materials developers to ensure that word-focused tasks contribute significantly to students’ learning.

Supplementing the Involvement Load Hypothesis with vocabulary-use knowledge improves mobile-assisted language learners’ productive vocabulary

Over the past two decades, the Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH) has become a popular buzzword in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). Although applications of the ILH can improve students’ learning of productive vocabulary, this effect appears to be transitory. Students’ learning of productive vocabulary often fades over time, as shown in delayed productive vocabulary tests. To address this problem, the present study investigated the effect of supplementing the ILH with vocabulary-use knowledge on students’ productive vocabulary performance. We designed two WeChat applets, namely Applet 0.0 and Applet 1.0. The design of Applet 0.0 was based solely on the ILH, whereas Applet 1.0 was guided by the ILH supplemented with vocabulary-use knowledge, with the latter consisting of grammatical functions (the grammatical patterns that a word can fit into), collocations (other words that appear together with a word), and constraints on use (the situations in which a word is used). Fifty-one English foreign language undergraduates were assigned to a control group (CG) or an experimental group (EG). Both groups completed a weekly paragraph-writing task as they learned vocabulary with the applets (the CG used Applet 0.0 and the EG used Applet 1.0). The results suggested an advantage for the ILH supplemented with vocabulary-use knowledge over the ILH alone for productive vocabulary performance. Moreover, mobile-assisted language learners’ language proficiency levels did not influence the effectiveness of the ILH (with or without vocabulary-use knowledge) on productive vocabulary performance. The EG students’ perceptions of the WeChat-mediated Mobile-Assisted Language Learning approach are also discussed.

The effects of task-induced involvement load and gloss languages on incidental L2 vocabulary learning

The current study investigated the interaction between task-induced involvement load and the languages used in vocabulary glosses on incidental second language (L2) word learning in low proficiency learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). Using computer-based tasks, the study also probed whether a task with a higher level of involvement load promoted a greater learner engagement with unfamiliar words, as measured by their hypertext gloss lookup frequencies. A total of 160 Thai EFL learners were equally divided into five task conditions based on the relative level of involvement load (low, high) and type of target word gloss (no glosses, L1 glosses, L2 glosses). The findings suggest that a task with a higher level of involvement load and first language (L1) glosses is most conducive to L2 word learning and that gloss language can mediate the effect of involvement load. Moreover, a task with a higher level of involvement load prompted learners to be more engaged with unfamiliar L2 words, irrespective of gloss language. The study provides partial support for the Involvement Load Hypothesis and reveals the differential effects of L1 and L2 glosses on L2 learning, which were not taken into account in the hypothesis. Pedagogical implications are also discussed.

The Involvement Load Hypothesis or the Technical Feature Analysis: Evidence from Four EFL Vocabulary Learning Tasks

L2 vocabulary acquisition is of much importance to L2 learners and has long been the hot topic in the field of applied linguistics. Stimulated by the Technical Feature Analysis (TFA) and the Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH) in particular, a large body of research has attempted to find the relative efficacy of various tasks in facilitating L2 vocabulary acquisition. However, there is a paucity of research regarding the relative effectiveness of the ILH and the TFA in accounting for the task type effects on L2 vocabulary acquisition. Therefore, the present study attempts to compare the relative effectiveness of the ILH and the TFA. The two main research questions are stated as follows: 1. How does task type (reading comprehension with glosses, gap filling, rewording and composition) affect EFL vocabulary acquisition? 2. Which better explains the relative effectiveness of tasks (reading comprehension with glosses, gap filling, rewording and composition) in facilitating EFL vocabulary acquisition, the Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH) or the Technical Feature Analysis (TFA)？ This study employed one-way ANCOVA (analysis of covariance) design with the between-subject factor being task type and the covariate being EFL vocabulary knowledge. The dependent variable was EFL vocabulary acquisition, which included two dimensions, i.e., word form recognition and passive word meaning recall. The EFL vocabulary knowledge posttests included the immediate and delayed posttests. After completing the EFL vocabulary knowledge (vocabulary size) test, 117 non-English major freshmen were randomly assigned to one of four learning tasks, i.e., reading comprehension with glosses (an index of 1 in the ILH versus an index of 5 in the TFA), gap filling (an index of 2 in the ILH versus an index of 7 in the TFA), rewording (an index of 3 in the ILH versus an index of 6 in the TFA) and composition (an index of 3 in the ILH versus an index of 8 in the TFA). The total task time required for the different groups was held constant. Then, on completion of the respective tasks, the participants were required to take the immediate posttests of word form recognition and passive meaning recall. One week after the immediate posttest, all the four groups took the delayed posttests. All the data collected were valid.

The Relative Effectiveness of Gap Filling, Summary Writing and Sentence Making in EFL Vocabulary Acquisition

This study investigates whether reading task type affects English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ vocabulary acquisition or not. 68 EFL learners are divided into three groups at random, assigned to one of three reading tasks of learning 15 target words of meaning and part of speech. The tasks are designed based on the Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH), which induces need (N), search (S), and evaluation (E) as components of involvement. The three tasks involve the same or different components: gap filling (+N, -S, +E), summary writing (+N, -S, +E) and sentence making (+N, -S, ++E). The findings are summarized as follows: the higher involvement loads a reading task induces, the more word meaning and part-of-speech knowledge EFL learners can acquire; the effects of tasks with equal involvement loads are identical on EFL learners’ acquisition of word meaning and part-of-speech knowledge. The results support the ILH and have some implications for English teaching.

Data-Driven Learning Tasks and Involvement Load Hypothesis

Despite the increasing research on the benefits of using corpora in language teaching and learning, Data-Driven Learning (henceforth, DDL) research has been criticized for its lack of contribution to second language theories. This paper intends to address this gap by examining the assumptions of Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH) using two DDL tasks with different cognitive loads. Learners were assigned to one of two conditions: reading only or translation. Based on ILH, translation is more effective than reading in learning vocabulary, as it induces more cognitive involvement (Laufer & Hulstjin, 2001). The two groups received a pretest to ensure their unfamiliarity with six target words. Each group underwent one instructional session under one of the two conditions. After the session, students took three immediate post tests on the six target items: active recall of form, passive recall of meaning, and production. Contrary to the expectations of ILH, the results of the immediate post tests showed no statistically significant difference in the mean of vocabulary knowledge between the two groups. In addition, in the delayed test, the reading-only group showed statistically higher scores in the active recall of form than their translation peers. The findings highlight some important theoretical and pedagogical implications for using DDL tasks, particularly for EFL vocabulary learning.

The Effects of Task-Induced Involvement Load on Incidental Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition through Reading

This dissertation intends to examine the effects of task-induced involvement load on the L2 incidental vocabulary acquisition through reading. Task-induced involvement load is operationalized through manipulating the components of need, search and evaluation to show the relevance of L2 incidental vocabulary acquisition. It will intend to do this by using three major variables: task-induced involvement load, initial vocabulary learning and medium-term vocabulary retention. The chapter starts by providing reasons for why incidental vocabulary acquisition through reading has been the focus of this study. The chapter then continues by summarizing how the existing literature helped shape the focus on the Involvement Load Hypothesis in the current study. Finally, a general overview of the structure of this dissertation will be given in the last section.

The Role of Glosses in L2 Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition in Reading

Incidental vocabulary acquisition is the primary way for second language learners to acquire vocabulary knowledge and adding glosses has been proven a great contributor to this process. Generally speaking, glosses refer to the translation equivalent words, L2 synonyms or brief L2 explanations of target words. This paper reviewed studies on the role of glosses in L2 incidental vocabulary acquisition in reading in terms of gloss languages, gloss types, gloss locations and gloss modalities. Findings indicate that 1) adding glosses is conducive to vocabulary acquisition; 2) effects of gloss languages are mediated by learners' L2 proficiency; 3) multiple-choice glosses are better than single-translation glosses; 4) multi-modal glosses are better than single-modal glosses. These findings support the Revised Hierarchical Model, the Involvement Load Hypothesis and the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. Future research should focus more on the measurement of productive knowledge, the measurement of the depth of vocabulary knowledge, the measurement standard of second language proficiency and the vocabulary learning process in reading.

Empirical Support for the Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH): A Systematic Review.

The Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH) has become a widely used framework for predicting second language (L2) vocabulary learning from task completion. The purpose of this systematic review was to analyze the predictive ability of the ILH in the acquisition of aspects of knowing a word, its application in different target populations, the effective vocabulary learning task types designed based on the ILH, and the occurrence rate of the ILH components in vocabulary learning tasks. We searched IEEE, ERIC, WOS, Scopus, and ProQuest databases for empirical studies published between 2001 and 2021, using a vocabulary-focused keyword string combined with an ILH-focused keyword string. A total of 78 studies were selected using a set of inclusion and exclusion criteria. The content analysis of these studies showed that researchers have used the ILH to investigate the acquisition of six aspects of knowing a word. Four types of tasks (i.e., fill-in-the-blanks, reading, composition writing, and meaning-inferring) provided more positive evidence for the validation of the ILH. The search component was least present in the vocabulary learning tasks. Researchers have supported the use of the ILH to predict the vocabulary learning potential of tasks completed mainly by adult learners. This systematic review provides direction for future reviews and empirical studies in L2 vocabulary teaching and learning framed by the ILH.

Learning vocabulary through dual-subtitled viewing: the impact of different ILH-based interventions

With the rise of computer-assisted online learning tools such as the Language Reactor, advanced captioning options such as dual subtitles (i.e. simultaneous display of on-screen texts in the first language and the second/foreign language) have gained much attention. However, little is known about how dual-subtitled viewing may be optimised to foster second/foreign language learning in multimedia learning environments. In this study, I extended Laufer and Hulstijn (Applied Linguistics, 22(1), 1–26, 2001) Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH) to the context of audiovisual input and examined the effects of dual-subtitled viewing under multiple ILH-based interventions on vocabulary learning. University Chinese-speaking low-intermediate EFL learners (n = 72) were divided into four groups and exposed to dual-subtitled videos with varying ILH-based interventions. Using a counterbalanced 4 × 4 experimental design, I compared learners’ immediate vocabulary gains and retention of target words under four different treatments across four experimental sessions, including interventions featuring an involvement load of 4 (moderate need + search + strong evaluation), an involvement load of 3 (moderate need + search + moderate evaluation), an involvement load of 2 (moderate need + search), and an involvement load of 0 (absence of need, search or evaluation). The approach to data analysis was twofold: between-groups and within-groups. ANOVA results revealed that vocabulary gains were the highest when learners viewed dual-subtitled videos under treatments with higher involvement loads. The article ends with a consideration of practical and theoretical implications for language learning through this form of audiovisual multimedia learning condition.

Incidental Lexical Learning from Single-player Video Game

Under the recent pandemic triggered by Covid-19, technology-mediated learning platforms have received increasing attention, and digital video games are one of such prevailing trends. However, most studies in this field have focused on multiplayer online games with particular attention to the interaction between game players. Against this context, this paper reports a case study that explored how single-player video games can affect second language users' incidental lexical learning from playing The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild (BOTW). Eight Cantonese undergraduate students were randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group and their vocabulary knowledge was assessed using the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS) tests. Four students in the experimental group played the game for four hours, while those assigned to the control group only took the VKSs without playing the game. The results indicated that the students showed improvement in their receptive knowledge about the target words, while word frequency and context in the game did not have an impact on incidental lexical learning. The findings are explained with Hulstijn and Laufer's (2001) Involvement Load Hypothesis and Skehan's Trade-off Hypothesis, and pedagogical suggestions are provided in terms of how to utilize games in promoting incidental lexical learning.

The Roles of Second-Language Proficiency Level and Working Memory on Vocabulary Learning from Word-Focused Exercises

This study investigates the effects of three word-focused exercise conditions on vocabulary learning. The exercises were developed based on the involvement load hypothesis. This study also explores how individual differences (e.g. second-language English proficiency level and working memory) affect vocabulary learning outcomes. A total of 180 Chinese students were equally and randomly assigned to 3 exercise conditions (reading comprehension plus marginal glosses, reading plus gap-fill and reading plus sentence writing). The Vocabulary Knowledge Scale was adapted to measure pre- and post-test vocabulary gains. An n-back task was developed to assess learners’ working memory capacity. Results showed that the sentence-writing group yielded the best performance in vocabulary learning, followed by the gap-fill group and finally the reading-comprehension group. General linear model results revealed that learners’ English proficiency level and working memory significantly predicted their vocabulary gains. This study expands on prior research by exploring learner-related factors in vocabulary learning. Relevant implications are discussed based on the findings.

Incidental L2 vocabulary learning from audiovisual input: the effects of different types of glosses

Despite increasing number of studies on incidental vocabulary learning through viewing in a foreign language, glosses, which have been proven to have facilitative effects in incidental vocabulary learning via other modes of input, have remained underexplored in audiovisual input. The current study investigates the effects of (1) traditional gloss (TG), (2) multiple-choice gloss (MCG) and (3) no gloss (NG) conditions on incidental L2 vocabulary learning through viewing animated short videos. Turkish-L1 upper-intermediate to advanced EFL learners (N = 127), who were randomly assigned to three conditions, watched three short, animated videos twice. The results revealed that while the MCG group and the TG group significantly outperformed the NG group in vocabulary meaning recall test, there was not a significant difference between the glossed conditions. The results also suggested that the participants learnt new words through interacting with MCGs. Furthermore, the participants’ prior vocabulary knowledge positively correlated with incidental vocabulary learning from the videos. The results are discussed within the framework of previous research and the Involvement Load Hypothesis.

Effects of Sentence Output Tasks on EFL Vocabulary Learning from a Bayesian Perspective

This article builds on the growing line of inquiry into the relative effectiveness of different tasks for vocabulary learning. Specifically, the study compares the efficacy of several sentence output tasks in EFL vocabulary learning through reading. To this end, evidence was weighed for one hypothesis over the alternative from a Bayesian perspective rather than in light of the commonly used null hypothesis significance testing (NHST), which depends heavily on the <i>p</i> values for statistical conclusions. Ninety-one EFL learners were randomly assigned to one of three word-focused sentence output tasks (i.e., L2-L1 translating, paraphrasing and writing), and were subsequently tested on their initial learning and retention of newly-encountered EFL words. Both Bayes factor analysis and Bayesian parameter estimation were employed to find evidence for task effects. With respect to initial word learning, moderate evidence was in favor of no difference between translating and paraphrasing, whilst weak evidence in favor of no difference between translating and writing as well as between paraphrasing and writing. For pedagogical purposes, no good evidence was for or against task effects. Regarding word retention, moderate evidence supported no task difference, and all the tasks fared equally well pedagogically. The results partially support the involvement load hypothesis and are discussed in terms of task difficulty, context generation and semantic elaboration.