Sport Involvement Research Articles

Alleviating Doctors' Emotional Exhaustion through Sports Involvement during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Mediating Roles of Regulatory Emotional Self-Efficacy and Perceived Stress.

This study aims to understand the state of emotional exhaustion of Chinese doctors during the COVID-19 pandemic, and explore the role of sports involvement in enhancing doctors’ regulatory emotional self-efficacy, reducing stress perception, and alleviating emotional exhaustion. Finally, report the existing problems and make recommendations to the government and hospitals. The researchers constructed a cross-sectional questionnaire survey to collect data. From March to April 2022, using the snowball and convenience sampling methods, a total of 413 valid questionnaires were collected from 13 hospitals in Hunan Province. AMOS 23.0 was used to construct a structural equation model (SEM) with the bootstrapping approach to verify the proposed hypotheses. Doctors with more sports involvement exhibited higher levels of regulatory emotional self-efficacy and lesser perceived stress. Doctors who exhibited higher regulatory emotional self-efficacy had lesser perceived stress. The relationship between sports involvement and emotional exhaustion was mediated by perceived stress and/or regulatory emotional self-efficacy. Therefore, the government and hospitals should strengthen the depth and intensity of implementing the “National Fitness Program” at the hospital level, instead of just holding short-term activities with a small number of participants, but to cover all medical staff with fitness opportunities.

Sports and school involvement and performance: a systematic review of literature

The purpose of this article was to map the published empirical investigations on the involvement and sports and school performance of young athletes, through a systematic literature search in the Lilacs, ProQuest, Scielo and SportDiscus electronic databases. The characteristics of the studies were analyzed using absolute frequency, while their results were analyzed using categories (NVIVO PRO, version 12). The 17 selected studies revealed, in the athletes' perception, more benefits than harms due to the involvement with the sport, a positive relationship between sport and study, and a positive influence of sports practice on the academic performance of student-athletes. It can be concluded that the dual career accumulates numerous commitments and obligations, however, the benefits and positive relationships established make this involvement, in the perception of young people, something favorable to their development, making it essential to their human formation in a comprehensive way. Further research is needed to broaden the understanding of how trainings are related and how they influence the lives of student-athletes throughout their lives. Key Words: Athlete, Students, Education, Youth Sport.

Unlocking the black box of sponsorship in participant-based sport

PurposeThe purpose of this research is to develop a more precise evaluation of sport sponsorship efficiency in participant-based sport, by investigating the specific aspects of participants' attitude and behavior toward sponsors. In more detail, this research develops a comprehensive sponsorship model in the participant sport context, integrating the following constructs: sport involvement, sincerity, social media use, beliefs about sponsorship, satisfaction with event, sponsor's image, awareness of sponsors, attitude toward sponsors, purchase and word of mouth intentions.Design/methodology/approachA quantitative method was utilized and 1,056 questionnaires were effectively collected and analyzed via SPSS and AMOS. Using structural equation modeling, this research tested a conceptual framework analyzing the role of different factors for sponsorship efficiency in a participant sport context.FindingsThe present research proposes a model of 10 variables which altogether permits a complete comprehension of how to expand the linkages among antecedents and outcomes of sport sponsorship in participant-based sports. The proposed factors assume a critical role in upgrading sponsorship effectiveness, which is reflected through a continuum of responses that regularly begins with sponsorship awareness and, at last, leads to increments in participants' purchase and word of mouth intentions regarding sponsors' products.Research limitations/implicationsVarious implications for future studies as well as strategies to boost the advantages for sponsoring firms in participant-based sports, can be drawn from the suggested model.Originality/valueUp to the present, there is a scarcity of research exploring the effectiveness of sponsorship in participant-based sports. The majority of sponsorship studies measure the impact of sponsorship on spectators, neglecting the role of participants as potential vehicles in the sport sponsorship setting. This study is the first to exploring the role of sport participants in sport sponsorship literature, provides a comprehensive framework, which can guide future studies and enhance sponsorship efficiency in a participant sport context.

The Relationship of Sports Participation in Academic Performance among College of Arts and Sciences Varsity Players

Background: Sports are featured in the curriculums of state universities and colleges (SUCs). The Laguna State Polytechnic University (LSPU) shines in sports competition throughout Region IV, and the College of Arts and Sciences (CAS) varsity athletes are actively engaging in this sports competition. Nevertheless, during the previous decade, the CAS had been routinely rated third to fifth in intramurals. Objectives: The researcher wish to ascertain the embodiment of CAS student athletes' experiences in sports involvement and academic performances to discover the significance of participation in sports and academic performance of students. The findings serve as the foundation for crafting Student Intervention Program. Methods: The descriptive survey approach was used to a total of 30 varsity players in CAS from the 5 programs. The Cronbach alpha was utilized to assess the overall consistency of the self-made instrument and was carried out to CAS students belong to the varsity team using an internet web service. Results: It was established that the student-athletes felt that all the assertions were evaluated as great in the university, especially in CAS, indicating satisfaction with the university's operations. Consequently, athletes excel in both athletics and academics. Conclusion: It was notably that CAS varsity players were deemed to be great by the student-athletes. Respondents were happy with the university's procedures as viewed and experienced in prior sports competitions held not just within the LSPU System but also at the Regional STRASUC or even National SCUAA. Students participating in sports are much more likely to excel academically.

Correlation study between triathlon development and participation

Different factors condition sports development and participation. Existing research has shown that an individual's attitude toward sports involvement is mostly influenced by personal factors, although sports participation may also influence sports development. This study proposes to examine whether the Ideal-Type Model of Integrated High Performance and Mass Sports Development (ITM) and the classic model of planned behaviour (TPB) theory reinforces the development of triathlon and the main motives for people to participate in a triathlon. A model based on the traditional ITM and TPB models was presented. Three hundred six valid questionnaires were gathered online in southern China to create the sample. The data were encoded, cleansed, and analysed preliminarily using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). In addition, the suggested model and assumptions were verified and validated using the partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) method and Smart PLS 3.0 software.

How Medical Staff Alleviates Job Burnout through Sports Involvement: The Mediating Roles of Health Anxiety and Self-Efficacy.

In the current healthcare environment, job burnout among medical staff is increasingly evident. Burnout not only affects the mental and physical health and career development of individuals but also affects the quality of care and the doctor–patient relationship. This paper investigates the influence of sports involvement on burnout in medical staff based on the job demands–resources theory, focusing on the mediating role of health anxiety and self-efficacy in the relationship between sports involvement and job burnout. A questionnaire survey was used to collect data from 444 medical staff in public hospitals in Wuhan, China. Structural equation modeling (SEM) with a bootstrapping approach was conducted to test the hypothesis and mediating effects. It was found that health anxiety and self-efficacy played a significant mediating role between sports involvement and job burnout. The results indicate the important role that sports involvement plays in addressing burnout, revealing that decreasing health anxiety and increasing self-efficacy attenuated job burnout. This finding suggests that hospital administrators should not only pay attention to medical staff’s health conditions and improve their enthusiasm for work but also encourage them to become more engaged in sports.

Not your average sport parents: How sport scholars make decisions about their own children’s sport involvement

Every year, millions of parents are faced with decisions about their children’s sport involvement that may have profound impacts on psychosocial and developmental outcomes. Little is known about how parents make these decisions and what factors may be influencing them, although parents’ sport background and knowledge are likely important. Parents who are also active sport scholars with knowledge of the academic literature and policies pertaining to youth sport are well positioned to clarify and interpret their decision-making processes and influences related to their children’s sport involvement. In this study, we aimed to answer the question, “How do parents with academic expertise in sport make decisions about their children’s sport involvement?” We interviewed 11 faculty-researchers from within the United States and Canada, all of whom held doctorates in sport-related disciplines and had one or more children between the ages of 8–15 years involved in organized, competitive sport. Findings were analyzed through a process of content analysis, and results are represented by four main themes: (a) influencing factors, (b) encouraging sampling, (c) evaluating and modifying the sport environment, and (d) supporting autonomy. Our findings revealed far more complexity in the types of decisions to be made and the factors influencing them than is currently suggested by youth sport literature and policy documents. As well, participants demonstrated nuanced interpretations of commonly endorsed sport parenting practices and illuminated structural issues with youth sport policies, including a focus on individual athletes without consideration of siblings and the family unit as a whole.

A Comparison Of Motivators Between Youth Single-sport, Multi-sport, And Single-sport Specialized Athletes

The motivation for youth sport involvement may differ for single-sport (non-specialists), multi-sport, and single-sport specialized athletes. PURPOSE: To investigate differences between adolescent single-sport athletes (SSA), multi-sport athletes (MSA), and single-sport specialized athletes (SSSA) on measures of sports enjoyment and motivation. A secondary aim was to compare these variables between age groups. METHODS: Adolescent sport participants in 6th, 7th, and 8th grade (n=306, age=13.0±1.0 yrs) completing the Sources of Enjoyment in Youth Sports Questionnaire (SEYSQ) that assesses sport enjoyment in the subscales of self-referenced competency (SRC), other-referenced competency and recognition (ORCR), effort expenditure (EE), competitive excitement (CE), affiliation with peers (AP), and positive parental involvement (PPI). The particpants also reported their age, gender, grade, years of sport participation and sport status (SSA, MSA, SSSA). RESULTS: SSSA reported significantly more enjoyment in all subscales except PPI when compared to SSA (p<0.05; ES 0.4 - 0.99). MSA and SSSA showed significant differences in the subscales of SRC and EE; however, effect size was small (0.37 and 0.33, respectively). Overall scores for intrinsic and extrinsic motivation were significantly lower among SSA compared to MSA and SSSA (p<0.01) with no differences between MSA and SSSA (p>0.05). Results revealed no significant differences in the SEYSQ 's subscales for age (p>0.05). CONCLUSION: Within the parameters of this study, adolescents that specialize in a single sport or those who compete in multiple sports both rely on intrinsic and extrinsic sources of enjoyment for motivation in very similar ways; whereas adolescent SSA are less motivated and experience less enjoyment from sport participation compared to MSA and SSSA. Key Words Adolescent Enjoyment SEYSQ

스포츠의류 구매결정요인이 구매의도에 미치는 영향 : 스포츠관여도의 매개효과를 중심으로

This study attempted to examine the effect of the determinants on the purchase intention of sports clothing focused on the mediation effect of degree of Sports involvement. Data with questions that were not sampled and entered by a total of 270 people or data of 22 people showing uniform responses or repeated response types were judged to be insincere responses and removed, and data of 248 people were finally used. The survey questionnaires were used to collect the data. Specifically, Based on the questionnaire used by Chae(2014), Lee(2020), and Lee(2016), the purchasing determinants were modified, and Based on the questionnaire used by Park(2012), Ryu (2014), Lee(2017), Lee, Yang & Han(2012), the purchase intention was modified, and The degree of Sports involvement was composed by modifying the five questions used in the study of Zaichkowski(1985) and Hwang(2022) to suit the situation of this study. The collected material was carried out by using Spss 24.0 and Amos 24.0 version. the study reached the following conclusions : First, The influence relationship between the factors determining the purchase of sports clothing on sports involvement and purchase intention was established. Second, The mediating effect of sports involvement was established between the purchasing determinants and purchasing intentions.

Correlation study between triathlon development and participation: What makes a sustained development and participation of triathlon in southern China?

Different factors condition sports development and participation. Existing research has shown that an individual's attitude toward sports involvement is mostly influenced by personal factors, although sports participation may also influence sports development. This study proposes to examine whether the Ideal-Type Model of Integrated High Performance and Mass Sports Development (ITM) and the classic model of planned behaviour (TPB) theory reinforces the development of triathlon and the main motives for people to participate in a triathlon. A model based on the traditional ITM and TPB models was presented. Three hundred six valid questionnaires were gathered online in southern China to create the sample. The data were encoded, cleansed, and analysed preliminarily using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). In addition, the suggested model and assumptions were verified and validated using the partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) method and Smart PLS 3.0 software.

P01-01 Assessment of local governments’ involvement in sport and physical activity policy promotion – LoGoPAS project

BackgroundThe involvement of local governments in physical activity (PA) promotion represents a key factor to drive change at grassroots level, based on identified specific needs and solutions, tailored to each local context (needs, resources, etc.). The aim of LoGoPAS, Erasmus + Sport co-financed project (2020-2021), is to assess, promote and support local governments' involvement in PA (policy) promotion.MethodsA mixed methods approach has been put in place (including thematic document analysis of grey literature, semi-structured stakeholder interviews, group consensus methodologies) to explore and analyze the current legally binding and voluntary activities of local goverments in PA (policy) promotion. The study is being conducted at local level in Finland, France, Germany, Japan and Romania. Already validated instruments to evaluate local PA policy, such as L-PAT (Local Policy Audit Tool), Capla SANTE or TEAviisari will be used to harmonize data collected from each partner country, at local level.ResultsLocally collected data from partner countries reveal significant differences in the organization and delivery of PA related policies with more regulations and structures in the western countries (e.g. Germany or Finland) and more opportunistic and mixed approach (related to the purpose of the PA related projects) in Romania. Also, the currently available instruments for evaluation of local PA policies (those used for data harmonization in our project - see methods section) can benefit from additions in order to capture the complexities of the engagement of local governments in PA promotion.ConclusionAlthough the roles of local governments in PA promotion has been widely acknowledged (e.g. by WHO or the European Comission), there are currently few hands-on instruments for policy-makers and other actors at local level to advance PA promotion agenda and activities. Approaches tailored to local contexts may help engage local governments, while international networking may foster the exchange of experiences and help optimize interventions.

Insight of previous parental sport engagement among competitive swimmers in Kenya

This study sought to establish the relationship between sport involvement of parents and children’s involvement in swimming. The study was descriptive and exploratory in nature. Former (N=148) and active swimmers (N=394) responded to the questions as to whether their parents were involved in any sport, and whether their parents supported their participation in competition. More parents of active swimmers (86.3%, N=340) participated in sports, compared to 64.9 % (N= 96) among former swimmers. Specifically, more fathers (75.1%, N=296) of active swimmers were involved in sports compared to mothers (45.9%, N=181). Among former swimmers, there was minimal difference between fathers (N=66) who participated in sports compared to mothers (N=64). Previous parental sporting involvement had significant influence on active swimmers at p= 0.001. Parents act as role models and pass on their beliefs, supporting their children in endeavors that they value.

Description of sport participation profiles and transitions across profiles during adolescence

ABSTRACT Few studies describe sport participation profiles in the general population using multiple characteristics. Therefore, the objective of this study was to identify sport participation profiles during adolescence and to describe transitions across profiles from grades 5 to 12 (age 10 to 18 years). We used data from 916 participants (55% girls; age 10–12 years at inception) of the Monitoring Activities of Teenagers to Comprehend their Habits (MATCH) study. Participants self-reported involvement in 36 organized and unorganized physical activities three times/year from grades 5 to 12 (24 data collection cycles; 2011–2018). At each school grade, we derived four categorical variables of sport involvement: number of organized sports, number of unorganized activities, weekly sessions, and number of year-round activities. To identify sport participation profiles, we used latent class analysis at each grade. To characterize transitions between sport participation profiles across grades, we used latent transition analysis. Five distinct sport participation profiles emerged: “non-participants”, “unorganized activities only”, “single-sport low frequency”, “single sport high frequency”, and “multi-sport”. Only “multi-sport” participants were unlikely to be classified as “non-participants” over time. Encouraging multi-sport participation might help protect against later non-participation. This study helps identify important times to intervene for improving physical activity levels.

The Initiation and Developmental Course of Prescription Drug Misuse Among High School Athletes During the Transition Through Young Adulthood.

The objective of this study was to examine the extent to which involvement in high-contact, semicontact, or noncontact sports during the 12th grade is associated with the initiation and developmental course of prescription drug misuse (PDM) between ages 17/18 years and 27/28 years. Data were collected from a national multicohort panel sample of US 12th-graders (cohorts 2006-2017; n=4,772) from the Monitoring the Future Study who were followed for a decade, through age 27/28 years. Approximately 31% of high school seniors indicated PDM at baseline (age 17/18 years). While past-year PDM remained relatively stable between ages 17/18 years and 27/28 years, participation in both noncontact (adjusted odds ratio =1.40, 95% confidence interval: 1.02, 1.91) and contact (adjusted odds ratio =1.57, 95% confidence interval: 1.08, 2.28) sports in the 12th grade increased the odds of initiating prescription stimulant misuse during the 10 years following high school as compared with respondents who did not participate in these types of sports in the 12th grade. To our knowledge, this is the first national study to have assessed how sports participation during high school is associated with the initiation and developmental course of PDM from adolescence to young adulthood. These findings reinforce the need for PDM screening during adolescence, as nearly 1 in 3 high school seniors engage in PDM. Increased prescription stimulant misuse following high school warrants ongoing monitoring during young adulthood, especially among athletes.

Relationship Between Emotional Contagion and Leisure Benefits in Sports and Leisure: The Mediating Role of Leisure Involvement and Flow

The purposes of the study were to test the mediating role of leisure involvement and flow on the relationship between emotional contagion and leisure benefits in sports and leisure. The participants were college student in Taiwan selected by the purposive sampling method. Sports and Leisure Emotional Contagion Scale, Sports and Leisure Involvement Scale, Sports and leisure Flow Scale, and Sports and Leisure Benefits Scale, are used as instuments after compiled by authors, and retested using PLS-CFA. The CFA results showed that four scales have a good reliability and validity. The data were analyzed using PLS-SEM. Results of the study indicate that leisure involvement and flow had full mediating effects between emotional contagion and leisure benefits. The results could be applied in both sports and leisure area of mathematics instruction, and emotional contagion could elevate leisure benefits by leisure involvement and flow.

‘Let's face it, it's not a healthy sport’: Perceived health status and experience of injury among Polish professional mixed martial arts athletes

With this article we present findings from the research on professional MMA fighters and their perception of health and injury. The frequency and types of injuries they have sustained while practicing MMA were analysed alongside self-assessment of health conditions and attitudes towards health problems. We also analyze fighters’ risk culture of neglecting pain and underestimating injuries, and the organization of health care in the event of an injury. A mixed methodology was applied. We administered a questionnaire to 88 male professional MMA athletes. Additionally, in-depth interviews were conducted with 15 athletes from the surveyed group. Respondents’ mean age was 27.5. They had sound MMA experience, with the most experienced competing in over 20 professional fights. Investigated athletes reported numerous health problems, high injury rate and frequent occurrence of pain. The MMA risk culture seemed to shape specific competitors’ perceptions and responses to injury and health problems and specific hierarchy of injury severity. MMA athletes showed a high level of risk acceptance regarding their health and the social and economic terms of their professional MMA involvement. They also reported inadequate medical care and oversight, and independently organised and financed medical and rehabilitation treatments. Nevertheless, for investigated athletes this risk culture seems to be internalized and considered an acceptable cost of their professional sport involvement and recognition.

Correlation study between triathlon development and participation

Different factors condition sports development and participation. Existing research has shown that an individual's attitude toward sports involvement is mostly influenced by personal factors, although sports participation may also influence sports development. This study proposes to examine whether the Ideal-Type Model of Integrated High Performance and Mass Sports Development (ITM) and the classic model of planned behaviour (TPB) theory reinforces the development of triathlon and the main motives for people to participate in a triathlon. A model based on the traditional ITM and TPB models was presented. Three hundred six valid questionnaires were gathered online in southern China to create the sample. The data were encoded, cleansed, and analysed preliminarily using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). In addition, the suggested model and assumptions were verified and validated using the partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) method and Smart PLS 3.0 software. The proposed model presents a statistical validity that proves that 1) talent search and development, advanced athlete support, training centres, competition systems, intellectual services, partnership with supportive agencies, balanced and integrated funding, and mass and elite sport structures positively influence southern China's triathlon development.

Adolescent girls' participation in sports is associated with lower negative effects of internalization of thin body ideals on self-objectification: findings from a cross-sectional study.

The aim of the present study was to test a partial sociocultural model of integrated tripartite influence and objectification theories in adolescent girls and to assess the moderating role of participation in sport. This study is part of a larger research that involved a sample of adolescent girls and boys from the 11th grade. In the present study, data on 842 girls were analysed. The mean age of the sample was 16.9 ± 0.5years. The adolescent girls completed online questionnaires assessing internalization of thin body ideals, disordered eating attitudes and behaviours, and self-objectification, as well as various aspects of participation in sports. To assess the primary hypotheses, moderated mediation models were tested. Self-objectification mediated associations between internalization of thin body ideals and disordered eating attitudes and behaviours in adolescent girls. Participation in an achievement sport moderated the association between internalization of thin body ideals and self-objectification, but not between the latter and disordered eating attitudes and behaviours. Internalization of thin body ideals was not significantly associated with self-objectification in girls participating in achievement sport. The association between internalization of thin body ideals and self-objectification was stronger in adolescent girls not involved in any sports activities than in leisure-time exercisers. It is important to promote involvement in sport for all adolescent girls, since it might help them to decrease the negative effect of internalization of thin body ideals on self-objectification and to value body functions over appearance. Decreasing self-objectification and teaching about body functionality might be an effective strategy in programmes aimed at decreasing disordered eating in adolescent girls participating in achievement sport. Level of evidence V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

ПЕРСПЕКТИВЫ РАЗВИТИЯ СПОРТИВНО-ОЗДОРОВИТЕЛЬНОЙ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТИ В СТРУКТУРЕ РЕКРЕАЦИИ СОВРЕМЕННОЙ МОЛОДЕЖИ В РОССИИ

Objective of the study is the analysis of the prospects for the development of sports and health-improving activities in the structure of recreation of modern youth in Russia. &nbsp; The methodological basis of the research are the principles of institutional and activity approaches. The institutional approach makes it possible to determine not only the objective parameters of the sports functioning, but also subjective characteristics, including value orientations, attitudes of representatives of various social groups and strata aimed at sports and health-improving activities. The application of the activity approach as a methodological basis to study the problem of the formation of a health-improving sports culture makes it possible to reveal the mechanisms and patterns within the framework of the formation of the corresponding attitudes and orientations in the process of implementing sports and recreational activities. &nbsp; Research results. To increase the level of youth involvement in systematic sports, it is necessary to “increase the number of sports facilities and entities” (45.4 %), “hold more sports events, competitions that are accessible (free) for young people” (48.9 %), “increase the number of free clubs and sections for sports” (46.4 %), “increase the salaries of sports teachers and coaches” (27.3 %), “strengthen the promotion of sports and a healthy lifestyle”. Similar goals and objectives for the development of sports are enshrined in the State Program of the Russian Federation “Development of Physical Culture and Sports”, which entered into force on January 1, 2022. Prospects of the study are related to the prospects for organizing recreational activity of young people by state and municipal authorities, supporting mass sports that have a health-improving effect, as well as providing equal opportunities for physical education and sports in order to improve their own health and increase efficiency. &nbsp;

Participant or spectator? Comprehending the sport sponsorship process from different perspectives

PurposeDespite the fact this is already known over how sports spectators interpret sponsorship content, less is known about participants’ sentiments toward sponsors, which are sometimes crucial to the survival of participation sporting events. Various researchers have examined at how spectators recognize or recall sponsors, but very few have explored it from the viewpoint of sport participants. This research portrays a shift in focus from spectator-based to participant-based marketing by studying the differences over how participants and spectators perceive sport sponsorship, recognizing the current knowledge gap regarding the process of sponsorship in participant-based sports. Sponsorship previous research has focused on the effectiveness of sport sponsorships utilizing variables such sponsor recognition, desire to sponsors’ products and anticipated sponsorship advantages (Koronios and Dimitropoulos, 2020). The examination of sport sponsorship from the standpoint of the sport spectator is something that many of the past studies have in common. The application of past research analysing sport sponsorship from a distinct perspective: that of the sport participant, distinguishes the present study. In addition, the present study explores the distinctions in sponsorship effectiveness between spectators and participants, a topic which hasn't been addressed at before in sponsorship literature.Design/methodology/approachThis study depicts a move away from spectator-based to participant-based marketing, utilizing contemporary implicit physiological variables to measure participants’ and spectators’ awareness of and attitude toward sponsors, and it proposes a model of their purchase intentions toward real sponsors of a martial event. A total of 1,332 questionnaires were collected and analysed.FindingsFactors such as sport involvement, social media use, sincerity and beliefs of sponsorship were found to have a significant effect on purchase intention of spectators and participants. And crucial differences in the significance of various antecedent factors between spectators and participants were detected in the formation of positive purchase and word-of-mouth intentions.Originality/valueThis paper gives prominence to contemporary methodological advances in the field of implicit social cognition and their relevance to sponsorship. This is the first sponsorship research which examines the effectiveness of sponsorship variables under the implicit–explicit variables dichotomy.