Involuntary Return Research Articles

The Grey Window of Temporary Reintegration: The Involuntary Return and Crisis-Induced Immobility of Filipino Migrant Workers

The Grey Window of Temporary Reintegration: The Involuntary Return and Crisis-Induced Immobility of Filipino Migrant Workers

Disgraceful return: Gulf migration and shifting national narratives amid COVID-19

ABSTRACTSeveral Asian countries that encourage international migration of labour call their emigrants ‘national heroes and heroines’ because of their contributions to foreign currency reserves and subsequent national development. However, the massive involuntary return amid the COVID-19 pandemic and the health risk associated with returning from virus-affected regions, such as the Gulf states, call the development narratives of migrants and migrant remittances into question. This study examines the experiences of Gulf return migrants in Bangladesh, focusing on their arrivals at the airport, their travels home, their receptions at the origin communities, their financial hardship upon return and the shifting development narratives in the origin country. The paper draws on primary data, collected through interviews of Gulf returnees in Bangladesh between 2020 and 2021. This study finds that the image of migrants as ‘national heroes’ is not only challenged during the pandemic but replaced almost overnight by a new one, such as ‘COVID-19 super-spreaders’. This research reports that migrants confront with unpleasant circumstances during their return migration process that render their return to their country of origin disgraceful. The paper stresses developing policy measures to protect involuntary returnees from victimisation and disgraceful circumstances.

The impact of return migration on employment and wages in Mexican cities

How does return migration from the US to Mexico affect local workers? Return migrants increase the local labor supply, potentially hurting local workers. However, having been exposed to a more advanced U.S. economy, they may also carry human capital that benefits non-migrants. Using an instrument based on involuntary return migration, we find that, whereas workers who share returnees’ occupations experience a fall in wages, workers in other occupations see their wages rise. These effects are, however, transitory and restricted to the city-industry receiving the returnees. In contrast, returnees permanently alter a city’s long-run industrial composition, by raising employment levels in the local industries that hire them.

Negotiated and Involuntary Return: COVID-19 Pandemic and Return Migration of Bangladeshi Temporary Labour Migrant Men

This paper investigates return migration of Bangladeshi temporary labour migrant men in the midst of the COVID-19 pandemic. Drawing on a case study of Bangladeshi migrants, who are mostly occupied in low and semi-skilled labour-intensive markets in the Middle East and the Southeast Asian countries, this paper assesses the relational aspect between pandemic and return. It discusses the underlying reasons of pandemic induced return which is based on a fieldwork, conducted in 2021, with the Bangladeshi returnee migrants. It argues that migrant receiving states' exploitative policies–burgeoning labour market nationalisation and lack of social and legal protection mechanisms–are the overriding reasons of return, rather than the pandemic. Whilst the pandemic intensified these existing exclusionary policies, this paper depicts how the migrants conform to the policies of migrant receiving states through rigid visa regime, heightened labour market immobility, retrenchment, and wage theft, which resulted in return migration.

Return and Re-migration Challenges for Bangladeshi Female Migrants in the Middle East during the COVID Pandemic

Every year many Bangladeshi females migrate overseas to work as domestic workers in the Middle Eastern houses and few females migrate to other job sectors. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many female migrants returned home voluntarily and involuntarily. While involuntary return created various forms of stress and hardship, pandemic-induced complexities and restrictions made it difficult for the returnee female migrants to re-migrate. This paper aims to empirically explore the return and re-migration journey of Bangladeshi female migrants during the COVID-19 pandemic. Empirical evidence was collected through in-depth interviewing of 25 female returnee migrants and five key informants. The findings confirm the knowledge gap regarding the multi-layered recruitment process, presence, and domination of various actors in the female migrants’ migration journey, and unclear laws and policies as the most critical challenges that made re-migration difficult for the female returnee migrants. The COVID-19 pandemic created numerous difficulties like visa expiration, cancellation of flights, vaccination problems, financial difficulties for quarantine, and passport renewal issues. All these difficulties contributed to precarious conditions through intensifying the stress in work life and social life and thus augmented Bangladeshi female migrants’ sufferings upon their return from the Middle Eastern countries. The new knowledge offered by this paper calls for effective policy actions and labour protection for the returnee female migrants during a pandemic situation.

Distress Migration and Involuntary Return During Pandemic in Assam: Characteristics and Determinants

Novel Coronavirus disease and the resulting lockdown has created a unique situation of involuntary return migration among labourers in India. It provided a stage for conducting a retrospective study to analyse determinants of return behaviour among internal migrants upon their return. The aim of the paper is to carry out an empirical verification of socio-economic profile of migrant workers, information about destination, determinants of return migration, and future aspirations of the return migrants. Based on a telephonic semi-structured open-ended questionnaire-based survey conducted in February and March 2021 among 238 non-returnees and return migrants of Sonitpur District of Assam, we found that four states from South India, namely—Karnataka, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala, are the most attractive destinations for migrants from Sonitpur. The bulk of the migrants are young, unmarried men with minimal education, and majority come from households with no cultivable land. About 30% of the returnees went back to their previous destinations within a year, while a sizable portion of non-returnees are willing to return. Not all migrants returned home during pandemic. After controlling for all variables, it was revealed that the percentage of income sent as remittances, the availability of a job card by migrants' households, status of family migration, income, and the number of working days per week are all significantly related to migrants' decision to return. We suggest a hypothesis based on the observations that during times of crisis, migrants with other economic options at sources, such as a job card, are more likely to return.

End of the China dream? Young Western entrepreneurs’ trajectories of leaving China during Covid-19

This research examines two groups of young Western entrepreneurs’ experiences of leaving China during the Covid-19 pandemic, either due to business failure or due to being stuck abroad when China closed its border to international travelers. Based on semi-structured long-distance interviews with twenty young white entrepreneurs who had previously worked in different Chinese cities, this article highlights the impacts of the Covid-19 crisis on their businesses, social status, and identities before and during the pandemic. We identify two prominent themes in our respondents’ highly emotional reflections on their involuntary return experiences: loss and victimhood. We argue that such narratives betray multi-layered tensions between privileges and precariousness in the social construction of whiteness in a transnational context.

IMPACTS OF COVID 19 PANDEMIC ON MIGRANTS AT THE ORIGIN: LESSONS FOR MIGRATION GOVERNANCE

Considering the crucial role played by the migrants in the country’s macroeconomic stability, it is very important to assess the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on the migrant community of Bangladesh both at the destination and origin. Though the condition of the migrants at their destination is well discussed in the literature, there is little focus on their condition at the origin. In this context, the present study aims to analyze the impacts of the pandemic on the economic, social and psychosocial well-being of Bangladeshi migrants and their families at the origin to identify the weaknesses of the existing migration governance of the country which have contributed to perpetuating their sufferings. The study found that the returnee migrants and their households faced multifaceted negative impacts of the pandemic. Involuntary return of their migrant members and their stranded conditions, lack of employment and reduced remittance flow severely curtailed the income of migrant households, added to their debt burden and led to the curtailment of necessary expenditures. Migrants faced stigmatization and discrimination at both their destination and origin. Social stigma and involuntary repatriation had psychosocial impacts on them. The Government of Bangladesh took various initiatives to assist the migrants in coping with the challenges though they were not adequate. The present study suggests focusing on undocumented migration, “failed migration,” and reintegration to make the existing migration governance more prepared for similar future challenges.

Derechos humanos de niños, niñas, adolescentes y mujeres migrantes en los instrumentos internacionales

Desde la perspectiva de las Relaciones Internacionales y el constructivismo se analizan los instrumentos internacionales que abogan por los derechos humanos de niños, niñas, adolescentes y mujeres migrantes durante el proceso de movilidad. Se examina la correspondencia entre los instrumentos y sus implementaciones en el caso de la crisis humanitaria de 2013 y 2014 en Estados Unidos. Se abordan las políticas migratorias actuales entre México y Washington, para explicar y comprender por qué México está funcionando como muro de contención de centroamericanos, africanos y sudamericanos. Se exponen las propuestas de la Agenda 2030 y el Pacto Mundial sobre Migración que buscan regular y ordenar los flujos migratorios, ponderando la protección de los derechos humanos de migrantes, lo que se convierte en un reto ante el retiro de Estados Unidos y otros países del Pacto. Se construye una tipología de migrantes retornados distinguiendo entre el retorno voluntario e involuntario.

Violent Crime and the Long Shadow of Immigration Enforcement: Evidence from Mexico

Whereas the literature on post-deportation experiences has emphasized difficult labor market integration and social stigma associated with involuntary return, the broader effects of enforced return in migrants’ communities of origin have remained largely unexplored. This paper postulates that deportations increase levels of violence and crime when migrants are forced to return to a context where labor market opportunities are limited and that are dominated by organized crime. This hypothesis is tested by applying a two-step strategy to the case of Mexico, receiver of more than 3.5 million deportees from the US over the period 2000 to 2015. First step regressions use migrant’s exposure to deportation risk at the level of US states as an exogenous source of variation. This permits predicting rates of enforced return for more than 2,000 Mexican municipalities covering up to four 5-year intervals from 2000 to 2015. Second step regressions trace the causal effect of enforced return on indicators of violence and crime during a period of escalating violence since the mid-2000s, using municipal level indicators and household level survey data. Enforced return leads to more homicides and more cartel competition in migrants’ municipalities of origin, as well as a higher sense of insecurity among the population and a higher probability of being assaulted or kidnapped. These external effects of enforced return are a first step towards unpacking the various direct and indirect channels through which enforced return affects migrants’ communities of origin.

10 Migrants caught in crises: Contexts, responses and innovation

10 Migrants caught in crises: Contexts, responses and innovation

Involuntary Return and Coping Strategies Among Deportees in Nkoranza, Ghana

Generally, the rise in deportation has implications for the resettlement of migrants in their countries of origin. In view of the increasing number of deportees in many developing countries, such as Ghana, this study sought to identify the reasons for deportation, and coping strategies adopted by deportees in the Nkoranza Municipality of Ghana. The study utilized a qualitative research approach and twenty participants were recruited using purposive and snowball sampling techniques. Data were collected through individual in-depth interviews and analyzed thematically. The findings indicated that participants returned involuntary due to varied reasons (political instability; illegal entry and stay; and illegal border crossing). Furthermore, it was found that deportees included in this study adopted both problem-focused and emotion-focused coping. Evidence showed that the problem-focused strategies involved resettlement grants, as well as moral and financial support from friends and relatives. Besides, positive attitude towards the future and spirituality, were the emotion-focused strategies employed by deportees. Based on the findings of the study, implications are discussed.

Transnational migration and the involuntary return of undocumented migrants across the Cambodian–Thai border

ABSTRACTMigration from Cambodia is a major livelihood strategy for rural communities, with most rural families having at least one, usually younger, member migrating in search of work. The pervasive nature of this phenomenon relates to Cambodia’s troubled political past, and the country’s political economy that structures choice and opportunity. Under-investment in the agrarian economy together with unequal access to credit and productive resources leaves many rural Cambodians with little option but to migrate to boost family income. Thailand is the number one destination for rural Cambodians. Most have an undocumented status, putting them at risk of arrest and deportation. The return of more than 200,000 migrants to Cambodia over a two-week period in 2014 was precipitated by the Thai military’s seizure of power and migrants’ fear of the consequences of political instability, given their still vivid historical memory of the Cambodian Khmer Rouge’s reign of terror during the 1970s. Interviews with Cambodian migrants and members of their families are examined within a wider political and economic context to gain insight into migrants’ motivations and decision-making. The expulsion of migrants from Thailand casts light on the compulsive nature of migration, despite the high risks and precarious conditions under which undocumented migration takes place.

Trajectories of involuntary return migration to Ghana: Forced relocation processes and post-return life

This paper examines social and migratory trajectories of involuntary return, with a focus on Ghanaian labour migrants who have engaged in high-risk and precarious migration projects. Four types of involuntary return are identified, based on state involvement and forced relocation processes: deportation by air, overland deportation, evacuation and flight from conflict. I show that migrants may go through several – and different modes of – involuntary returns, sometimes over just a few years. Though different ways of returning have implications for future legal mobility, it is less pertinent for migrants' post-return life where the main question confronting them is what they brought back. That involuntary returnees are seen as successful if they manage to return with money, skills or exposure reflects that migration constitutes local collective hope – an imagined pathway to transform one's life and establish a better future for one's family and oneself.Following returnees over time, I distinguish between three overall trajectories: continued precariousness, re-migration, and social and economic regeneration. Some returnees find themselves in the same or worse social and economic situations as prior to migration. Others succeed in social and economic regeneration, establishing livelihoods and (re-)positioning themselves as respectable persons. However, in many cases, post-return life is characterized by uncertainty and many returnees are engaged in several migration projects over time, regardless of the mode of involuntary return. Hence, involuntary return disrupts, slows and hampers migration projects but it does not necessarily end them.

Deportation and Re-integration: Exploring Challenges Faced by Deportee Residents in the Nkoranza Municipality, Ghana

The increase in deportations over the years has had adverse effects on immigrant families, communities, and countries of origin. Involuntary return, especially deportation, causes economic hardship, emotional distress, and family separation. Given the rising number of deportees in Africa and Ghana in particular, this study sought to explore the challenges that confront deportees in re-integrating into the Nkoranza Municipality of Ghana. Using a qualitative research design, 20 participants (19 males and 1 female) were purposively recruited for the study. In-depth interviews (IDIs) were conducted to gather data, which were analyzed thematically. The findings of the study indicated that many of the deportees faced challenges, such as difficulty in accessing jobs, food and attendant health complications, and loss of personal belongings. Other challenges were negative perceptions and poor relationships, as well as inaccessible formal support services. Based on the findings of the study, implications are discussed.

Disrupted migration projects: the moral economy of involuntary return to Ghana from Libya

AbstractThis article contributes to the theorization of involuntary return and moral economies in the context of economic crisis and vulnerability prompted by restrictive migration regimes and conflicts. Drawing on fieldwork in a rural town in Ghana where international labour migration is an established livelihood, it analyses deportations from North Africa, Israel and Europe and emergency return from Libya following the civil war in 2011. The article argues that return to the home town, rather than being detained or stuck en route, constitutes a particular context precisely because migrants face family and community expectations upon their return. Involuntary return constitutes a disruption of migration projects when migrants return empty-handed, going from being remitters to burdens for their families. This creates conflicts and disappointments within family and the local community, especially in relation to norms of provision and gender ideals. The paper highlights three effects of the moral economy of involuntary return. First, that involuntary return does not constitute a priori termination of migration, as many involuntary return migrants migrate again, often in high-risk ways. Second, it discusses the ambivalence of reciprocity and interdependency in families. And third, it shows how involuntary return challenges dominant ideals of masculinity.

Deconstructing the meanings of and motivations for return: an Afghan case study

Return migration after conflict is the result of a complex decision-making process. However, our understanding of this complexity is blurred by changing politicized understandings of return. In this paper, we compare the autobiographical narratives of return of ‘early’ and ‘late’ (post-mid-1990s) arrivals of Afghans who met with changing reception regimes in Europe and returned to Kabul under a wide range of circumstances. We first develop a framework that attempts to understand migration from an actor-based rather than a bureaucratic perspective. We then deconstruct how Afghan migrants made sense of their own return migration, and analyse the ambivalences and seeming contradictions we find in them. The findings show that there are no clear-cut boundaries between voluntary and involuntary return decisions: almost no decision to return was entirely free, as there were legal constraints, family pressure, economic needs or socio-cultural difficulties at the basis of this decision. Almost no return decision was entirely forced, either, as most people did have the choice not to return, however harsh the alternative to returning would have been. At the same time, the analysis shows a strong empirical watershed between the post-return experiences of returnees who continue to have the capacity to be transnationally mobile and the experiences of those who do not. Concluding, we propose to centralize agency over mobility, facilitated by legal status and other factors, in the analysis of return. Concluding, the findings challenge the current policy-oriented binary categories. Alternatively, we propose to centralize the level of agency in decisions of transnational mobility as a more relevant factor in the analysis of return.

The ambivalence of neighbourhood in urban Burkina Faso

In the informal settlement of Sarfalao, in the city of Bobo-Dioulasso in south-western Burkina Faso, relations between newcomers and long-term residents in the neighbourhood were strained by the competition for living space and the opportunities to build a livelihood in the city. These tensions followed the involuntary return of large numbers of Burkinabe migrant workers from Côte d'Ivoire in the period 2000–2007 in particular, due to the civil war there. In this context, newcomers attempted to build relations and alliances with their neighbours while being treated with resentment by long-term residents who were overwhelmed by their mass arrival. The struggle for integration depended on the ability of each arriving family to assimilate local norms of respectability, making the neighbourhood the stage upon which the newcomers’ morality was displayed and judged. While neighbourhood could potentially become the locus of kinship-like ties of relatedness and integration, it was experienced as a space of vital, yet ambivalent social and spatial relationships.

Involuntary Return Migration and Reintegration. The Case of Ghanaian Migrant Workers from Libya

This paper presents findings from a study that investigated the experiences of the returning Ghanaian migrants from Libya during the Arab Spring of 2011. The study used qualitative methods to explore involuntary return and reintegration of migrants in a south–south migration framework. Information from semi-structured interviews of migrants from selected communities in Ghana in addition to data from the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the National Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) were used. The objective of the study was to find out the major difficulties returnees faced in reintegrating into their societies of origin as a result of their hasty departure and to assert the factors that may influence reintegration. The study finds that the combination factors including of high levels of family dependence on returnees, weak governance and the absence of reintegration policies may foster re-emigration.

Return to Afghanistan: Migration as Reinforcement of Socio‐Economic Stratification

AbstractThis paper explores a new avenue of the hierarchisation of mobility amongst voluntary and involuntary return migrants to Afghanistan. We introduce the concept of multidimensional and multi‐local embeddedness as an analytical approach to the multi‐sited experience of migration, which merges transnationalism and integration into one analytical framework. Drawing on an in‐depth case study that focuses on the life histories of 35 Afghan returnees from European countries, we argue that socio‐economic differences that existed prior to migration are reinforced by the migration experience, which results in strongly differentiated patterns of multidimensional embeddedness and transnational mobility. These patterns reinforce previously existing socio‐economic stratification and restrict expectations of return migration and development. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.