Investment In Restoration Research Articles

Mathematical problem definition for ecological restoration planning

Ecological restoration is an increasingly important tool for managing and improving highly degraded or altered environments. Faced with a large number of sites or ecosystems to restore, and a diverse array of restoration approaches, investments in ecological restoration must be prioritized. Nevertheless, there are relatively few examples of the systematic prioritization of restoration actions. The development of a general theory for ecological restoration that is sufficiently sophisticated and robust to account for the inherent complexity of restoration planning, and yet is flexible and adaptable to ensure applicability to a diverse array of restoration problems is needed. In this paper we draw on principles from systematic conservation planning to explicitly formulate the ‘restoration prioritization problem’. We develop a generalized theory for static and dynamic restoration planning problems, and illustrate how the basic problem formulation can be expanded to allow for many factors characteristic of restoration problems, including spatial dependencies, the possibility of restoration failure, and the choice of multiple restoration techniques. We illustrate the applicability of our generic problem definition by applying it to a case study – restoration prioritization on The Irvine Ranch Natural Landmark in Southern California. Through this case study we illustrate how the definition of the general restoration problem can be extended to account for the specific constraints and considerations of an on-the-ground restoration problem.

Dynamic physical and economic modelling of riparian restoration options

A dynamic simulation framework is used to compare benefit-cost ratios of riparian restoration investment strategies to pursue ecosystem service benefits. The model is meant to be adaptable to generic restoration planning applications, with the Middle Rio Grande riparian corridor in Albuquerque, New Mexico, U.S.A. presented here as the illustrating case. Model inputs include ecosystem service values from an original choice experiment, values from regional benefit transfer studies, and information from land managers. The model includes three control variable modules: forest management, river restoration, and recreation infrastructure. Investment influences these modules, which in turn affect ecosystem service flows for the region. The model is exercised to compare a “No-Action” alternative with “Optimal Benefit-Cost Ratio” restoration funding. An extended sensitivity analysis explores a range of both physical and economic assumptions. The analysis has two major outcomes. The first is that directed restoration funding yields significant gains as compared with No-Action for all scenarios tested. The second major finding is that although optimized benefit-cost ratios are above unity for all “states of the world” tested, the ratio itself and funding patterns varied widely. These sensitivities underscore the need for a transparent adaptive management decision process supported by tools aimed not at deterministic prediction, but rather at structuring dialogue and inquiry into issues that defy simple intuition.

Long-term change in storm hydrographs in response to peatland vegetation change

The runoff from blanket peatland catchments tends to be dominated by flashy stormflows. However, it is not known whether changes in vegetation cover influence the nature of stormflow hydrographs from blanket peatlands. This is important since degraded peatlands are of concern to restoration bodies who seek to understand the wider impacts of restoration investment on ecosystem services. This paper tests the hypothesis that peak flows are significantly higher and lag times shorter at the catchment scale when blanket peat vegetation cover is reduced. Storm hydrograph data from the 1950s to the present day are analysed from a blanket peat catchment in northern England. The proportion of the catchment that was vegetated appears to have declined between the early 1950s and mid 1970s and then increased again to the present day. The changes in the proportion of bare peat over the catchment are coincident with changes in storm hydrographs. Hydrographs were significantly peakier with higher peaks per unit of rainfall (0.40 m3 mm−1 compared with 0.27 m3 mm−1) and narrower hydrograph shapes during the more eroded periods in the catchment and less so as the site has revegetated. Mean peak storm discharge was also significantly higher during the most eroded period. Thus, for the first time we have found evidence in a blanket peat headwater catchment that vegetation cover influences river flow response to rainfall.

Pesticides, aquatic food webs, and the conservation of Pacific salmon

Pesticides pose complex threats to the biological integrity of aquatic ecosystems. In the western US, pesticides have contaminated many surface waters that provide habitat for endangered salmon. These iconic species depend on the productivity of rivers, lakes, and estuaries to provide food for juvenile growth, a key determinant of subsequent marine survival. Despite extensive societal investments in salmon habitat restoration in recent years, the role of pesticides as a limiting factor for salmon recovery has received little attention. Pesticides can be toxic to primary producers and macroinvertebrates, thereby limiting salmon population recovery through adverse, bottom‐up impacts on aquatic food webs. The integration of toxicology, environmental chemistry, population biology, community ecology, landscape ecology, conservation biology, and environmental policy is needed to better understand these indirect effects of pesticides on endangered species. We highlight key information gaps and discuss how future research on pesticides and food webs can most effectively guide the long‐term conservation of imperiled fish species.

Instrumentos legais podem contribuir para a restauração de florestas tropicais biodiversas

O insucesso da maioria das iniciativas de restauração de florestas naturalmente biodiversas como a Mata Atlântica desencadeou um movimento intenso de discussão sobre a ciência e prática da restauração ecológica no Estado de São Paulo. Isso convergiu na construção participativa de uma resolução estadual de caráter técnico e orientador para restauração, a qual tem sido revisada e atualizada periodicamente em workshops que reúnem mais de 200 profissionais em cada evento. Essa resolução objetivou potencializar o estabelecimento de florestas biologicamente viáveis e com riqueza de espécies vegetais condizente com a dos ecossistemas de referência, a fim de garantir a persistência das florestas restauradas e proteger a biodiversidade nativa. As contribuições dessa resolução para o aperfeiçoamento e estímulo das ações de restauração são hoje evidentes. Entre 2003 e 2008, período de discussão dessa resolução, a produção de mudas de espécies arbustivas e arbóreas nativas no Estado cresceu de 13.000.000 (55 viveiros) para 33.000.000 (114 viveiros) por ano, e o número médio de espécies produzidas nos viveiros também aumentou de 30 para mais de 80, refletindo o crescimento das ações de restauração. Do ponto de vista deste estudo, esse instrumento legal tem servido como mecanismo legítimo de política pública ambiental e de proteção dos interesses coletivos da sociedade. Particularmente, ele guia e orienta a maior parte dos investimentos em restauração ecológica e aumenta as perspectivas de maximização dos benefícios para a sociedade, que podem e devem ser obtidos com a restauração, incluindo a persistência da biodiversidade nas paisagens antrópicas tropicais.

Can we balance the high costs of nature restoration with the method of topsoil removal? Case study from Poland

Topsoil removal is an effective, but also expensive method of nature restoration on fens and fen meadows. The high cost is a factor limiting the application of this method, especially in Central European countries, where investments in nature restoration are low. Can we partly balance the high costs of restoration with the method of topsoil removal, by utilising the degraded soil? We explore and roughly assess the benefits from re-using the removed soil. The cost limitation lies mainly in the transport. This is due to the difficulties of moving the soil within the project site and the often high costs of transporting and storing soil out of the site. The soil substrate can be utilised in forestry or horticulture, but is of rather poor quality, compared to commercially sold garden soil. In general, the respondents were not willing to pay for the substrate, pay much less than the price of commercial soil or they were not directly interested in using it. The assessment of possible gains in our case study indicated that, even if the soil is utilised in some way, the high costs cannot be fully balanced.

The use of Bayesian networks to guide investments in flow and catchment restoration for impaired river ecosystems

Summary1. The provision of environmental flows and the removal of barriers to water flow are high priorities for restoration where changes to flow regimes have caused degradation of riverine ecosystems. Nevertheless, flow regulation is often accompanied by changes in catchment and riparian land‐use, which also can have major impacts on river health via local habitat degradation or modification of stream energy regimes.2. The challenges are determining the relative importance of flow, land‐use and other impacts as well as deciding where to focus restoration effort. As a consequence, flow, catchment and riparian restoration efforts are often addressed in isolation. River managers need decision support tools to assess which flow and catchment interventions are most likely to succeed and, importantly, which are cost‐effective.3. Bayesian networks (BNs) can be used as a decision support tool for considering the influence of multiple stressors on aquatic ecosystems and the relative benefits of various restoration options. We provide simple illustrative examples of how BNs can address specific river restoration goals and assist with the prioritisation of flow and catchment restoration options. This includes the use of cost and utility functions to assist decision makers in their choice of potential management interventions.4. A BN approach facilitates the development of conceptual models of likely cause and effect relationships between flow regime, land‐use and river conditions and provides an interactive tool to explore the relative benefits of various restoration options. When combined with information on the costs and expected benefits of intervention, one can derive recommendations about the best restoration option to adopt given the network structure and the associated cost and utility functions.

Challenges in integrating the concept of ecosystem services and values in landscape planning, management and decision making

Despite the growing body of literature on ecosystem services, still many challenges remain to structurally integrate ecosystem services in landscape planning, management and design. This paper therefore aims to provide an overview of the challenges involved in applying ecosystem service assessment and valuation to environmental management and discuss some solutions to come to a comprehensive and practical framework. First the issue of defining and classifying ecosystem services is discussed followed by approaches to quantify and value ecosystem services. The main part of the paper is focussed on the question how to analyze trade-offs involved in land cover and land use change, including spatial analysis and dynamic modelling tools. Issues of scale are addressed, as well as the question how to determine the total economic value of different management states. Finally, developments and challenges regarding the inclusion of ecosystem services in integrative landscape planning and decision-making tools are discussed. It is concluded that the ecosystem service approach and ecosystem service valuation efforts have changed the terms of discussion on nature conservation, natural resource management, and other areas of public policy. It is now widely recognized that nature conservation and conservation management strategies do not necessarily pose a trade-off between the “environment” and “development”. Investments in conservation, restoration and sustainable ecosystem use are increasingly seen as a “win-win situation” which generates substantial ecological, social and economic benefits.

Planning iterative investment for landscape restoration: Choice of biodiversity indicator makes a difference

Natural regrowth vegetation offers a cost-effective means of restoring some degraded landscapes. Worldwide, policy responses to climate change are increasing the attractiveness of investment in regrowth protection or facilitation which with strategic planning could also deliver substantial dividends for biodiversity conservation. This study compares the performance of two commonly used indicators of biodiversity conservation priority, irreplaceability and complementarity, as tools to support planning for iterative investment to protect natural regrowth of Brigalow, an endangered ecological community in subtropical eastern Australia. Brigalow covered more than seven million hectares prior to clearing, it now persists ‘intact’ on less than a tenth of that area but there are significant areas of regrowth. Data on Brigalow regrowth derived from mapping and remote sensing identify 10,555 patches covering 280,000 hectares in total. Two different classifications are used to represent Brigalow biodiversity: a land-type classification of 16 ‘regional ecosystems’ mapped at 1:100,000 scale, and a landscape-scale classification of 40 biogeographic subregions that discriminate relatively uniform landscapes at about 1:500,000 scale. Conservation targets are expressed as the extent of regrowth needed to increase the extent of intact or ‘remnant’ areas of each biodiversity feature to either 5% or 10% of its former extent. In each case, irreplaceability and complementarity are positively correlated, and either metric type could be used to identify relatively large sets of high-priority patches. However, regional-scale restoration is likely to involve iterative investment and therefore to require discrimination of relatively small sets of patches of the highest priority for biodiversity conservation. Irreplaceability is not an ideal measure of biodiversity value when planning such iterative processes, simply because irreplaceability is uninformative for ranking ‘high-value’ patches; they all have the highest possible score. This study demonstrates the importance of considering quite fundamental points when choosing metrics for conservation planning, such as the frequency distribution of values they produce. Where planning aims to identify quite small sets of very high value features metrics that are most variable among the highest value patches, like the one used for complementarity in this study, will be more useful than metrics that are strongly bounded at higher values.

Using return‐on‐investment to guide restoration: a case study from Hawaii

AbstractRestoring natural capital is essential for biodiversity and ecosystem services that support human well‐being. Although ecological pathways for restoration are a major area of study, little is known about the economic pathways to which these efforts must be linked. This linkage, however, is important for maximizing return‐on‐investment (ROI) from restoration projects. We developed a general ROI framework to guide investments in restoration. We applied this framework to reforestation of montane pastureland in Hawaii, focusing on two specific conservation targets: native forest birds and understory plants. We found that restoring partial tree cover on pastureland is most attractive for birds, while understory plants require investment in full forest restoration. Nonlinearities in restoration pathways present in Hawaii, and likely elsewhere, generate these substantially different ROI profiles across potential projects. This information can guide the design of policies supporting cost‐effective practices to help ensure that limited resources achieve the greatest impact.

Native bird breeding in a chronosequence of revegetated sites

Restoration of degraded landscapes through replantings of native vegetation has been proceeding in response to habitat loss and fragmentation and plummeting biodiversity. Little is known about whether the investments in ecological restoration have resulted in biodiversity benefits. We evaluated the potential of restored sites to support populations by assessing bird breeding activity. We surveyed 21 revegetated sites of various ages (9-111 years) in the box-ironbark region of Victoria, Australia. Sites differed in landscape context, patch features and in-site characteristics. The latter, including whether sites were grazed, amounts of fallen timber and numbers of remnant trees, were most important in affecting overall bird breeding activity. Patch-configuration (e.g., shape, area) was of secondary importance. Landscape context appeared to have little effect on bird breeding except for one species. While these results suggest that in-site habitat structure is the predominant driver, we caution against dismissing the importance of patch characteristics and landscape context for two reasons. First, the available sites covered a relatively small range of areas (<54 ha), and we could not provide a broad range of landscape-contextual contrasts given that we could only use existing plantings. Second, much of the breeding activity was by bird species known to be tolerant of smaller woodland areas or of the open countryside. We show that there is very little breeding activity in replantings by species that have declined dramatically in rank abundance between large 'reference' areas and fragmented landscapes. It seems likely that most replantings provide habitat configurations unsuited for dealing with declines of species most vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation.

Economy and ecology of emerging markets and credits for bio-sequestered carbon on private land in tropical Australia

A central question addressed is whether emerging carbon markets have the potential to provide an economic incentive for private landholders to reforest without recourse to subsidy. A second question is whether bio-sequestration in the Wet Tropics of Queensland is cost-competitive with southern Australia. A third, given that plantations of monocultures also provide carbon sinks, is: are the goals of carbon sequestration and biodiversity mutually exclusive or complementary? Australia intends to meet its Kyoto greenhouse gas emissions target even though it has not ratified the Protocol. While a national system of carbon emission cap and trade does not exist, unilateral action by some states to mandate industry caps has generated a demand for offsets. However, it is the voluntary market for offsets, stimulated by demand by companies and government departments that is most active. The favourable climate and soils of the Wet Tropics Region of north Queensland have enabled the evolution of unique ecosystems. Deforestation of these has been greatly reduced by World Heritage listing of the Wet Tropics. Nevertheless much of the landscape remains fragmented. An official priority is the encouragement of rainforest plantations on private land with the aim of augmenting endangered ecosystems and the habitat of iconic species, but reforestation is heavily subsidised by the Australian government. Using methodology that allows the comparison of uneven streams of costs and benefits, it is found that – at present prices – payments for sequestered carbon defray only a small proportion of costs, providing a level of incentive insufficient to stimulate restoration. Comparative analysis shows that monocultures sequester carbon at a much lower price per tonne. However, despite the relatively high growth rates of monocultures in the region, their cost per tonne of carbon are greater than costs in southern Australia. A decreasing supply of suitable land for bio-sequestration offsets in southern Australia may well force brokers to look to the Wet Tropics. In this event – the economic analysis suggests – land in areas that carried endangered or threatened ecosystems will be devoted to monocultures rather than restored rainforest. The paper highlights the asymmetry between the availability of credits for carbon and of credits for biodiversity and the need for public investment in conservation and restoration. Requiring further investigation is the potential demand for carbon offsets with high biodiversity benefits – so called “boutique abatements” – that could readily be supplied in the Queensland Wet Tropics.

Fish species diversity among spatial scales of altered temperate rivers

AbstractAim The alteration of flowing systems over the past century has led to significant changes to the processes that drive these complex environments as well as to the scales at which these processes act. Recently, efforts have begun in earnest to restore some semblance of ecosystem diversity, but there is little understanding of exactly on what spatial scale or scales biotic diversity is responding. We investigated the manner in which fish diversity is partitioned at multiple spatial scales in two rivers in the central United States.Location The Missouri and Illinois rivers of the central United States.Methods We analysed how fish diversity was partitioned within the Illinois River and Missouri River systems by sampling each river under hierarchical frameworks that allowed analysis at section (large), reach (intermediate), and site (small) scales. We tested the hypothesis that there are scale‐dependent responses of fish diversity using an additive partitioning approach.Results Site alpha diversity was significantly higher than expected in both the Illinois and Missouri rivers. The relative contribution of alpha diversity to total diversity at a given spatial scale increased for the Illinois River, but not for the Missouri River, in that the highest alpha diversity contribution peaked at the reach scale. Diversity patterns from both rivers suggest that diversity at the site scale plays a significant role in determining the overall diversity in these systems. However, there is a substantial contribution at larger scales that warrants consideration when attempts are being made to protect or restore diversity and other ecosystem parameters.Main conclusions Understanding the variation of diversity in riverine systems is crucial for providing insight not only into how biotic communities respond to scale‐dependent factors, but also into the underlying abiotic and biotic factors that generate patterns of diversity across scales. These insights, in turn, are important for ensuring that restoration and management activities are targeting the appropriate scales for remediation. A lack of understanding of this issue could have negative outcomes for the recovery of a community in a restoration scenario, as well as resulting in a low economic return on restoration investments, which could hinder future efforts.

Effects of artificial shading and weed mowing in reforestation of Mediterranean abandoned cropland with contrasting Quercus species

Large areas of abandoned cropland in the world can be reforested with native shrubs and trees to gain a number of environmental benefits. In abandoned Mediterranean croplands, establishment and growth of woody plants are limited by high radiation and low water availability during summer, and weeds are strong competitors for resources, particularly water. We conducted a 3-year experiment in central Spain to study the response of three Quercus species ( Q. coccifera, Q. ilex and Q. faginea) that differ in their habitat requirements under four treatment field conditions resulting from the combination of full-light versus artificial shading and weed presence versus weed mowing. We measured seedling survival, resprouting capability and growth, weed production, microclimate (incident photosynthetic active radiation (PAR), air temperature, soil water evaporation and effective precipitation) and soil moisture. Shading and weeds reduced PAR reaching the seedlings and soil water evaporation, and shading also reduced effective precipitation. Shading and mowing increased soil moisture. We found a clear positive synergic effect of shading and mowing on seedling performance. Weed competition limited seedling survival in all species more than high radiation, whereas the relative importance of these factors in limiting growth depended on the growth measure and species. As hypothesised, the effects of stress release on plot cover, an integrated performance index that combines survival and growth, were most noticeable in Q. faginea, the most mesic species, and least in Q. coccifera, the most xerophytic species. The release of weed competition allowed Q. ilex seedlings to invest resources in above-ground and, apparently, in below-ground growth. Shading increased simultaneous growth in diameter and volume only for Q. faginea. It is important that planted Quercus seedlings in abandoned Mediterranean cropland take advantage of a low competitive environment from weeds during the period before the first dry season. Once seedlings have established, an artificially shaded environment would provide benefits in terms of plot cover by the oaks, particularly for mesic species. Studies like this will be of great interest to optimize resource investment in active restoration of other ecosystems of the world.

Dry forests and wildland fires of the inland Northwest USA: Contrasting the landscape ecology of the pre-settlement and modern eras

Prior to Euro–American settlement, dry ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forests (hereafter, the “dry forests”) of the Inland Northwest were burned by frequent low- or mixed-severity fires. These mostly surface fires maintained low and variable tree densities, light and patchy ground fuels, simplified forest structure, and favored fire-tolerant trees, such as ponderosa pine, and a low and patchy cover of associated fire-tolerant shrubs and herbs. Low- and mixed-severity fires provided other important feedbacks and effects to ponderosa pine-dominated stands and landscapes. For example, in stands, frequent surface fires favored an ongoing yet piecemeal regeneration of fire-tolerant trees by periodically exposing patches of mineral soil. They maintained fire-tolerant forest structures by elevating tree crown bases and scorching or consuming many seedlings, saplings, and pole-sized trees. They cycled nutrients from branches and foliage to the soil, where they could be used by other plants, and promoted the growth and development of low and patchy understory shrub and herb vegetation. Finally, surface fires reduced the long-term threat of running crown fires by reducing the fuel bed and metering out individual tree and group torching, and they reduced competition for site resources among surviving trees, shrubs, and herbs. In landscapes, the patterns of dry forest structure and composition that resulted from frequent fires reinforced the occurrence of low- or mixed-severity fires, because frequent burning spatially isolated conditions that supported high-severity fires. These spatial patterns reduced the likelihood of severe fire behavior and effects at each episode of fire. Rarely, dry forest landscapes were affected by more severe climate-driven events. Extant dry forests no longer appear or function as they once did. Large landscapes are homogeneous in their composition and structure, and the regional landscape is set up for severe, large fire and insect disturbance events. Among ecologists, there is also a high degree of concern about how future dry forests will develop, if fires continue to be large and severe. In this paper, we describe the key landscape pattern and process changes wrought by the sum of the settlement and management influences to date, and we point to an uncertain future for ecosystem management. Widespread selection cutting of the largest and oldest ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir in the 20th century has reduced much of the economic opportunity that might have been associated with restoration, and long-term investment will likely be needed, if large-scale restoration activities are attempted. An uncertain future for ecosystem management is based on the lack of current and improbable future social consensus concerning desired outcomes for public forestlands, the need for significant financial investment in ecosystem restoration, a lack of integrated planning and decision tools, and mismatches between the existing planning process, Congressional appropriations, and complex management and restoration problems.

Stream corridor restoration research: a long and winding road

Stream corridor restoration research and practice is presented as an example of the application of ecology and engineering to solve a class of environmental problems. Interest and public investment in stream corridor restoration has increased sharply in developed nations over the last two decades, as evidenced by the volume of technical and refereed literature. However, real progress at the regional and national scale depends on successful research outcomes. Research addressing problems associated with stream corridor ecosystem restoration is beset by numerous problems. First, terms referring to restoration are loosely defined. Secondly, stream ecosystems are not amenable to rigorous experimental design because they are governed by a host of independent variables that are heterogeneous in time and space, they are not scalable, and their response times are often too long for human attention spans. These problems lead to poorly controlled or uncontrolled experiments with outcomes that are not reproducible. Extension of results to other sites or regions is uncertain. Social factors further complicate research and practice—riparian landowners may or may not cooperate with the experiment, and application of findings normally occurs through a process of suboptimal compromise. Economic issues, namely assigning costs for present and future ecosystem services that provide off-site benefits, further impede progress. Clearly, the situation calls for a hybrid approach between the rigor of the ecologist and the judgment and pragmatism of the engineer. This hybrid approach can be used to develop creative, low-cost approaches to address key factors limiting recovery.

Understanding Community-Based Forest Ecosystem Management

This paper synthesizes key issues identified and explored by a mix of practitioners, researchers, and resource managers who participated in a workshop designed to understand community-based ecosystem management. The interdependence between healthy ecosystems and community well-being lies at the heart of community-based ecosystem management. Core ideas focus on linking stewardship to the unique role that local communities and workers can play in its implementation; developing social and institutional processes that are more open, democratic and civil; monitoring ecosystem, social, and economic subsystems and modifying actions based on what is learned; empowering communities to strengthen their participation in natural resource management and address power imbalances; and developing a new understanding and valuation of the broad array of ecosystem products and services. The paper concludes with a discussion of ways community-based ecosystem management can be advanced, including: emphasizing the essential role of communities and workers in sustainable resource management; maintaining and building community capacity; improving understanding of worker issues and promoting an ecosystem workforce; establishing local and institutional processes that are inclusive, accessible and transparent; creating a civic science that respects and engages diverse people and knowledge systems; establishing new public and private approaches to long-term investment in ecosystem restoration and maintenance and in community-based stewardship; and advancing laws and policies that promote collaboration and coordination needed for long-term stewardship.

Evaluation of Indirect Economic Effects Caused by the 1983 Nihonkai-chubu, Japan, Earthquake

Effects of an earthquake are not necessarily restricted to damage of structures, but extend much further. This paper presents a method for estimating indirect economical effects caused by an earthquake. Loss of production may be caused by a decrease of products due to damage of production, damage of transportation facilities, and damage of materials and goods. Effect of investment for restoration is also considered. Based on direct loss associated with production loss, a secondary “ripple” effect was estimated through an inter-industry relation analysis (input-output analysis). The procedure was applied to the Nihonkai-chubu, Japan, Earthquake of 1983. Estimated gross products at the damaged region agreed fairly well with those actually observed after the earthquake.