Inventory Of Traits Research Articles

Predicting Physics Students’ Academic Performance: The Impact of Attitude, Self-Efficacy, and Personality Traits

The study examined the predictive impact of attitude, self-efficacy, and personality traits on the academic performance of high school students in physics. A multistage random sampling technique was used to select 210 research subjects between the ages of 16 and 22 (SD=1.80) from three high schools in the Berekum East Municipality of Ghana. Three standardised questionnaires as primary data sources, namely: Attitude Toward Physics Learning (ATPL), Physics Learning Self-Efficacy (PLSE), and Students’ Personality Trait Inventory (SPTI), and additionally, Students’ Physics Mock Examinations scores as a secondary data source, were used for data collection and analysis through multiple regression. Data collected from respondents were compiled, sorted, edited and coded into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23. The results revealed a joint impact of 21.100% of the variance in attitude, self-efficacy, and personality traits in predicting the academic performance of students in physics. Furthermore, the multiple regression analysis revealed that student attitudes, self-efficacy, and personality traits significantly impact student academic performance in physics. The analysis further revealed that students’ personality traits best explained students’ academic performance in Physics (β = 0.232, t = 3.423; p < 0.050), followed by self-efficacy (β = 0.192, t = 2.738; p < 0.050), and attitude (β = 0.121, t = 2.011; p < 0.05). Based on the results obtained, the study recommended that physics students in the Berekum East Municipality’s attitudes, self-efficacy, and personality traits should be given greater attention by physics teachers, and other stakeholders because of their positive impact on students’ academic performance in physics.

Exploring the Link between Autistic Traits, Emotional Intelligence, and Self-efficacy in Understanding Social Anhedonia

Abstract: Autism severity has been found to be associated with social anhedonia. However, the mechanisms linking the two have not been clarified. Objective: The study was designed to examine the link between autistic traits and social anhedonia. The present study tested a serial mediation model, in which it was hypothesized that emotional intelligence and self-efficacy were serial mediators of the relationship between autistic traits and social anhedonia. Methods: Data from 245 participants (57.4% females, n = 134) ranging in age from 18 to 65 years were collected through self-report. Participants completed an online composite questionnaire consisting of The Comprehensive Autistic Trait Inventory, the Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale, The General Self-Efficacy Scale and the Revised Social Anhedonia Scale. Results: The relationship between autistic traits and social anhedonia was mediated by emotional intelligence and serially mediated by emotional intelligence and self-efficacy. Self-efficacy alone failed to link autistic traits to social anhedonia. Conclusion: The study provides evidence for the significant role of emotional intelligence and self-efficacy as mechanisms underlying the relationship between autistic traits and social anhedonia. The findings are discussed in terms of elucidating the processes through which autistic traits may confer vulnerability to compromised emotional intelligence and self-efficacy, which then serve as additional risk factors for social anhedonia.

The effects of childhood trauma and moral disengagement on the trait of callousness in college students

This study explores the role of moral disengagement in the relationship between childhood trauma and callousness traits among adolescents, aiming to provide scientific evidence for the prevention and intervention of callousness traits among college students. A total of 865 students from three universities in Guangdong and Henan provinces were surveyed using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, the moral disengagement Questionnaire, and the Inventory of callousness traits. The SPSS 19.0 software was utilized to construct a structural equation model elucidating the relationships among moral disengagement, childhood trauma, and callousness traits. The results indicated significant positive correlations among childhood trauma, moral disengagement, and callousness traits. Childhood trauma significantly predicted both moral disengagement and callousness traits, and moral disengagement significantly predicted callousness traits. Additionally, moral disengagement mediated the relationship between childhood trauma and callousness traits. Childhood trauma and moral disengagement emerged as risk factors for callousness traits, suggesting that reducing moral disengagement among individuals with childhood trauma could alleviate their callousness traits.

Stability of Cloninger's temperament traits following a health event: Subjective and objective health status analysis from the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966

Personality/temperament traits are often presumed to remain stable across various life outcomes. This longitudinal study challenges this assumption by examining changes of Cloninger's Temperament and Character Inventory traits following a severe health event, utilizing data from the population-based Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966, combined with Finnish register data (N = 3195). We explore both health conditions diagnosed in healthcare settings and changes in individuals' self-reported health to discern the relationship between alterations in objective and subjective health and changes in temperament traits between ages 31 and 46. Our findings suggest that changes in health generally don't relate to alterations in three of the four temperament traits—novelty seeking, reward dependence, and persistence. However, we observe a significant shift in the fourth temperament trait, harm avoidance, following a health change. Both females and males reporting a decline in self-reported health become significantly more harm avoidant, irrespective of whether they experience an objective health event. Our results indicate that harm avoidance may not be entirely stable over time, and health changes, particularly regarding subjective health, are linked to variations in harm avoidance. Our results emphasize the need for caution when using harm avoidance as a predictor, particularly in the context of diverse health outcomes.

Modeling maladaptive personality traits with unipolar item response theory: The case of Callousness

Most IRT applications in personality assume that the measured trait is a bipolar dimension, normally distributed in the population. These assumptions, however, could be questionable for maladaptive, (quasi) pathological traits that still fall in the normal range. This study focuses on one such trait, Callousness, and uses two different instruments and samples to determine whether there is a basis for modeling it as a unipolar trait instead of a bipolar one. More specifically, the following community samples were used, recruited in several Spanish high schools: a) 719 adolescents (13-19 years old, 55.8% girls), b) 681 adolescents (13-19 years old, 44.9% girls). Callousness was assessed with the Inventory of Callous-unemotional traits and Antisocial behavior in the first sample and with the Inventory of Callous Unemotional traits in the second sample. We compared the outcomes of fitting the Graded-Response model (a bipolar-trait model) and the Log-Logistic model (a unipolar trait model) in these community samples and found that they differed considerably at the scoring level. In terms of accuracy, the conditional reliability functions had opposite patterns: it was maximum at high levels in the Graded-Response model and at low levels in the Log-Logistic model. In terms of validity, the models showed different results regarding the prediction of indirect aggressiveness and non-planning impulsiveness.

The Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits (ICU) self-report version: Factor structure, measurement invariance, and predictive validity in justice-involved male adolescents.

The Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits (ICU) is a widely used measure of callous-unemotional (CU) traits that may aid in the assessment of the diagnostic specifier "with limited prosocial emotions," which has been added to diagnostic criteria for conduct disorder. Though there is substantial support for use of the ICU total score, the scale's factor structure has been highly debated. Inconsistencies in past factor analyses may be largely attributed to failure to control for method variance due to item wording (i.e., half of the items being worded in the callous direction and half worded in the prosocial direction). Thus, the present study used a multitrait-multimethod confirmatory factor analytic approach that models both trait and method variance to test the factor structure of the ICU self-report in a clinically relevant, high-risk sample of justice-involved male adolescents (N = 1,216). When comparing the fit of empirical and theoretical models, goodness of fit indices (χ² = 1105.877, df = 190, root-mean-square error of approximation = .063, comparative fit index = .916, Tucker-Lewis index = .878, standardized root-mean-square residual = .051) provided support for a hierarchical four-factor model (i.e., one overarching callous-unemotional factor, four latent trait factors) when accounting for method variance (i.e., covarying positively worded items). This factor structure is consistent with the way the ICU was constructed and with criteria for the limited prosocial emotions specifier. In addition, measurement invariance of this factor structure across age, race, and ethnicity was supported, and the predictive validity of the ICU was supported across these demographic groups in predicting self-reported antisocial behavior and rearrests over a 5-year period following an adolescent's first arrest. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Testosterone, cortisol, and psychopathy: Further evidence with the Levenson self-report psychopathy scale and the inventory of callous unemotional traits

ABSTRACT The current study explored associations between testosterone, cortisol, and both the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRPS) and the Inventory of Callous Unemotional (ICU) traits. Data were gathered from a relatively large sample of university students (n = 522) and analyses considered direct and interactive associations between hormones and psychopathic traits, as well as interactions between these associations and the time of day at which samples were gathered and the sex of participants. Baseline cortisol had a negative association with LSRPS primary psychopathy scores. In addition, baseline cortisol interacted with the time of day in association with LSRPS total scores. Simple slopes analyses indicated cortisol had a negative association with LSRPS total scores in the morning but not the afternoon. Interactions among hormone measures were not statistically significant. There was also no evidence for the moderation of associations between hormones and psychopathic traits by sex.

Callous-Unemotional Traits and Conduct Problems in Children: The Role of Strength and Positive Characteristics.

In recent decades, many researchers have focused on the development of Conduct Problems from childhood to adolescence. Understanding behavior problems also requires an understanding of well-regulated characteristics. Focusing our assessment on strengths makes it possible, on the one hand, to help children or adolescents with deficits in important areas (e.g., socio-emotional deficits) to develop emotional regulation skills and adapt their responses to different contexts. This study aims to understand the role of self-competence, self-regulation, empathy, and responsibility (strength variables) in the relationship between Callous Unemotional characteristics and Conduct Problems, with a sample of 236 children aged between 3 and 10 years (M = 7.51, SD = 1.63), through mediation analysis. In general, our findings suggest that self-regulation significantly explains the relationship between the callous dimension of the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits and Conduct Problems, pointing out that this strength variable seems to act as a protective factor against the development of behavior problems. No other mediation effects were found, and these results are considered in light of some limitations.

Relations of personality factors and suitability ratings to Swedish military pilot education completion

AbstractImproved understanding of what it takes to be a pilot is an ongoing effort within aviation. We used an exploratory approach to examine whether there are personality‐related differences in who completes the Swedish military pilot education. Assessment records of 182 applicants, accepted to the education between the years of 2004 and 2020 were studied (Mean age 24, SD 4.2 96% men, 4% women). Discriminant analysis was used to explore which personality traits and suitability ratings might be related to education completion. Analysis included suitability assessments made by senior pilots and by a psychologist, a number of traits assessed by the same psychologist, as well as the Commander Trait Inventory (CTI). The resulting discriminant function was significant (Wilk's Lambda = 0.808, (20) = 32.817, p = .035) with a canonical correlation of 0.44. The model was able to classify 74.1% of sample cases correctly. The modeling suggests that senior pilot assessment and psychologist assessment both predict education completion. Also contributing were the traits energy, professional motivation, study forecast and leader potential.

Callous-unemotional traits and pre-ejection period in response to reward.

Callous-unemotional (CU) traits have important utility in distinguishing individuals exhibiting more severe and persistent antisocial behavior, and our understanding of reward processing and CU traits contributes to behavioral modification. However, research on CU traits often investigated reward alongside punishment and examined solely on average reward reactivity, neglecting the reward response pattern over time such as habituation. This study assessed individuals' pre-ejection period (PEP), a sympathetic nervous system cardiac-linked biomarker with specificity to reward, during a simple reward task to investigate the association between CU traits and both average reward reactivity and reward response pattern over time (captured as responding trajectory). A heterogeneous sample of 126 adult males was recruited from a major metropolitan area in the US. Participants reported their CU traits using the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits and completed a simple reward task while impedance cardiography and electrocardiogram were recorded to derive PEP. The results revealed no significant association between average PEP reward reactivity and CU traits. However, CU traits predicted both linear and quadratic slopes of the PEP reactivity trajectory: individuals with higher CU traits had slower habituation initially, followed by a rapid habituation in later blocks. Findings highlight the importance of modeling the trajectory of PEP reward response when studying CU traits. We discussed the implications of individuals with high CU traits having the responding pattern of slower initial habituation followed by rapid habituation to reward and the possible mechanisms.

The Utility of Expert-Rated and Self-Report Assessments of Youth Psychopathic Traits for Predicting Felony Recidivism Among Formerly Incarcerated Youth

Psychopathic traits assessed with expert-rated instruments are well-established predictors for both general and violent felony recidivism outcomes in adjudicated youth. However, it is not clear whether self-report assessments of psychopathic traits show similar predictive value. The current study evaluated both expert-rated (i.e., the Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version [PCL:YV]) and self-report measures (i.e., the Childhood Psychopathy Scale, Inventory of Callous Unemotional Traits, Antisocial Process Screening Device, and the Youth Psychopathic Traits Inventory) assessing youth psychopathic traits for predicting general and violent felony recidivism among formerly incarcerated high-risk male adolescents ( n = 275). Scores on both expert-rated and self-report instruments were significantly associated with a shorter time to felony rearrest into early adulthood (with an average follow-up window of 11 years). However, the expert-rated PCL:YV, but not self-report measures, provided significant utility for predicting violent felony arrest. These results suggest that in general, youth psychopathic traits, regardless of the specific instrument used, are predictors of general felony rearrest outcomes, while the expert-rated PCL:YV alone provides utility for predicting the most severe crimes (i.e., violent felonies). The strengths and limitations of the assessment modalities are discussed.

The Relationship Between Adversity Quotient, Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Skills Among Pre-University Students

This study aimed to determine the relationship between Adversity Quotient, Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Skills among pre-university students. The respondents were selected by using simple random sampling which is 119 students from 152. The data were obtained using three sets of questionnaires which is Adversity Response Profile (2001), Malaysia Emotional Intelligence Quotient Inventory and Malaysia Leadership Audit Trait Inventory. Findings revealed that the level of Adversity Quotient in its 4 components was marked moderate (mean =3.3227) while their levels of Emotional Intelligence in its 7 components was marked high (mean =4.0672) and for Leadership Skills level in its (7) components marked high ( ean =3.8530). Moderate positive correlation (0.451) was obtained through the analysis between the leadership skills and Emotional Intelligence, while no significant correlation was found between leadership skills and total Adversity Quotient, as well as between emotional intelligence and Adversity Quotient. It was concluded that the students’ level of Adversity Quotinet was not totally affected by emotional intelligence and also did not totally affect their leadership skills.

Measurement invariance of the inventory of Callous‑Unemotional traits in different age groups from preschool age to late adolescence in Germany.

Callous-unemotional traits are associated with the development of severe behavior problems, delinquency, and psychopathy. Previous studies have repeatedly shown that CU traits may be present as early as preschool age, and they have consistently used the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits (ICU) to assess CU traits in children and adolescents. A three-factor structure for the ICU has been widely endorsed. The aim of our study is to compare the three-factor structure of the ICU in different age groups (preschool, middle childhood, early, and late adolescence) and to test for measurement invariance in a German sample of N = 2368 children and adolescents (M = 11.76 years; SD = 3.72). The results of our study indicate configural measurement invariance, suggesting that the ICU has the same structure in all age groups but with different meanings, parameters, and mean values in the groups. Accordingly, the ICU cannot be applied in the same way to children and adolescents of different age groups, which emphasizes the need for a more differentiated assessment.

Autistic traits specific to communication ability are associated with performance on a Mooney face detection task.

Difficulties in global face processing have been associated with autism. However, autism is heterogenous, and it is not known which dimensions of autistic traits are implicated in face-processing difficulties. To address this gap in knowledge, we conducted two experiments to examine how identification of Mooney face stimuli (stylized, black-and-white images of faces without details) related to the six subscales of the Comprehensive Autistic Trait Inventory in young adults. In Experiment 1, regression analyses indicated that participants with poorer communication skills had lower task sensitivity when discriminating between face-present and face-absent images, whilst other autistic traits had no unique predictive value. Experiment 2 replicated these findings and additionally showed that autistic traits were linked to a reduced face inversion effect. Taken together, these results indicate autistic traits, especially communication difficulties, are associated with reduced configural processing of face stimuli. It follows that both reduced sensitivity for identifying upright faces amongst similar-looking distractors and reduced susceptibility to face inversion effects may be linked to relatively decreased reliance on configural processing of faces in autism. This study also reinforces the need to consider the different facets of autism independently.

Factor structure of callous unemotional traits and its associations with morality in middle childhood in a German community sample

The present study focuses on assessing the psychometric properties of the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits (ICU) in a German community sample of middle childhood participants. Previous research on the ICU has primarily been conducted in different samples and countries, with inconsistent results, i.e., different models in different samples and little attention given to German middle childhood populations. A critical need to deepen the understanding of callous-unemotional traits in middle childhood is urgently needed. Hence, this study aims to evaluate the factor structure of the ICU within a sample of children in middle childhood from Germany. A total of 824 children aged 7 to 12 years (M = 10.34, SD = 1.65) participated (52.18% boys). The ICU, a self-report measure, was employed to assess callous-unemotional traits in middle childhood. Additionally, this study also examines the relationship between callous-unemotional traits and morality. Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted to evaluate various model structures based on previous research. The best-fitting model was found to be a two-factor model consisting of callousness and uncaring factors. The moral self shows a stronger overarching association with the uncaring factor than with callousness. The study’s findings provide valuable insights into the applicability of the ICU across various age ranges, particularly in childhood, and the results are discussed in the context of other identified models and age groups and suggest that assessing CU traits requires a detailed perspective, taking into account other developmental factors.

Medical Students’ Stress Levels Are Correlated with Their Sleep Quality and Life Satisfaction

Background: Stress and sleep disturbances associated with low life satisfaction is frequently reported during medical education, intervening with the academic achievements and general well-being of medical students. We aimed to investigate the effects of stress levels on sleep quality (SQ) and life satisfaction (LS) of the students in Hacettepe University Medical Faculty (HUMF). Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted at HUMF between May and September 2022 after ethical approval. The participants (39 women and 48 men) completed a personal information form, State- Trait Anxiety Index (STAI)-I and II, Pittsburgh SQ Index (PSQI) and Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). Their blood pressure, heart rate, and salivary cortisol levels were measured. Results: The men and women were comparable for age, body mass index (BMI), stress parameters and PSQI scores, except the higher LS in women (P=0.045). Gender-based analysis revealed positively correlated BMI and STAI-I (r=0.357) and II (r=0.501) scores in women (P<0.05), and a similar but a weaker correlation for STAI-II scores in men (r=0.291) (P<0.05). The study group exhibited poor SQ (>5). The higher STAI-II scores, cortisol concentration and caffeine consumption were significantly associated with poorer SQ and LS in both genders, however, the state scores and alcohol consumption exhibited a significant relation in men, only. Higher scores for trait inventory and cortisol concentrations correlated negatively with LS in all participants. Conclusion: Awareness, a proactive approach, and sufficient support can help the relieve and/or manage the stress of medical students and improve SQ and LS.

Coping strategies facing Covid-19, perceived social support, and trait anxiety among Tunisian caregivers

IntroductionCaregivers in the Sfax region, Tunisia, having been at the forefront in the face of the Covid-19 pandemic, were therefore faced with intense stress. It seemed useful and interesting to us to study their adaptation strategies during this period of pandemic.ObjectivesThe aims of our study were to identify the coping strategies used by Tunisian Healthcare workers (HCW) during the Covid-19 pandemic and to study the links of the different coping strategies with perceived social support and trait anxiety.MethodsA cross-sectional, descriptive, and analytical study conducted among 254 Tunisian HCW working at the Habib Bourguiba and Hedi Chaker university hospitals in Sfax, during period from January 2021 to April 2021. the questionnaire used included an information sheet and three scales; “Social support questionary 6” (SSQ-6), “State Trait Inventory Anxiety Form Y2” (STAI-Y2), and “Ways of Coping Checklist” (WCC).ResultsUsing the WCC scale, the strategy most used by participants was the problem-focused one (M = 2.98 ±0.53), followed by the emotion-focused strategy (M = 2.65 ±0 .58), and that centered on the search for social support (M = 2.64 ±0.59). Using the SSQ-6, the mean score for the availability of perceived social support was equal to 8.91±4.59 and the score mean perceived satisfaction was equal to 28.63±5.84. The prevalence of trait anxiety was 50%, according to the STAI-Y2. Statistical tests showed that problem-focused coping was the strategy most adopted by non-anxious participants. They also showed that the higher the availability of perceived social support, the more the social support-seeking coping strategy was chosen, and the higher the perceived satisfaction with perceived social support, the less the emotion-focused strategy was chosen.ConclusionsIt seems necessary to propose a learning program for coping strategies to counter the potential emergence of ineffective strategies and to reinforce the use of effective strategies, in order to improve or maintain optimal well-being of health personnel.Disclosure of InterestNone Declared

The Interplay between Fear Reactivity and Callous-Unemotional Traits Predicting Reactive and Proactive Aggression.

Research has indicated that youths with CU traits are fearless, and this fearlessness plays a bidirectional role in both the development of CU traits and engagement in aggressive behavior. However, research specifically testing the role of fear in the association between CU traits and aggression is scarce. The goal of the current study was to test if fear reactivity, both conscious (self-report) and automatic (skin conductance reactivity; SCR), moderated the association between CU traits and aggression subtypes (reactive and proactive aggression). Participants included 161 adolescents (Mage = 15 years) diagnosed with conduct disorder. CU traits were assessed using the self-report Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits. Conscious and automatic fear reactivity were measured during a virtual reality rollercoaster using the Self-Assessment Manikin and skin conductance reactivity (SCR), respectively. Hierarchical regressions found that high fear reactivity on SCR moderated the link between CU traits and reactive aggression, while feeling more excited during fear induction moderated the link between CU traits and proactive aggression. Overall, a possible explanation of our divergent findings between conscious and automatic fear may be the difference between the instinctual biological response to threat versus the cognitive and emotional appraisal and experience of threat. Implications for intervention strategies targeting emotional recognition and regulation in reducing aggression in CD populations are discussed.

Primary and Secondary Variants of Callous-Unemotional Traits in Community Youths: Differences in Anticipatory Fear.

Callous-unemotional (CU) traits refer to a cluster of characteristics such as low empathy, lack of remorse, and insensitivity to the emotions of others, delineating a group of youth at high risk for severe antisocial behavior. Two variants-primary and secondary CU-have been theorized to have different underlying mechanisms, although mixed findings have been reported. The current study examined if the variants differ in their level of anticipatory fear in 92 youths from the community (mean age = 14.2 years, range = 12.3-16.4 years; 43.5% female). Participants completed a countdown task while their heart rate and skin conductance responses were recorded. Parents and youths completed the inventory of callous-unemotional traits and the child behavior checklist. Compared to the control group (low CU/low anxiety), the primary CU group (high CU/low anxiety) showed prolonged heart rate deceleration in anticipation of the impending aversive stimulus. The secondary CU group (high CU/high anxiety) did not differ from the other two groups on heart rate or skin conductance responses. This prolonged heart rate deceleration in the primary CU group is interpreted in the context of the passive vagal coping theory of antisocial behavior which hypothesizes that an over-engagement of the parasympathetic nervous system reduces the impact of a socializing punishment, which in turn predisposes individuals to antisocial behavior. Findings provide further support for the distinct etiology of two variants of CU traits.

The prevalence and risk factors of conduct disorder among juvenile delinquents in China

Conduct disorders (CDs) are common in juvenile justice cases, but their prevalence varies across regions. It is useful to help people comprehend the incidence and risk factors for CDs in the judicial environment. To determine the prevalence of CDs among juvenile delinquents in China and explore the risk factors for CDs in terms of demographic characteristics, individual characteristics, and social environmental factors. A total of 545 male juvenile delinquents and 297 typically developed adolescents from China were recruited for this study. The Conduct Disorder Screening Form was used to assess the symptoms of CD, and related measurements, including the Demographic Questionnaire, Short-Egna Minnen av Barndoms Uppfostran for Chinese (s-EMBU-C), the Short Form of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ-SF), the Parental Monitoring Scale, the Deviant Peer Affiliation Scale, the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits (ICU), the Self-Control Scale (SCS), and the Moral Disengagement Scale (MDS), were carried out. Among the juvenile delinquents, 58.7% met the symptoms of CD, with adolescent-onset CD accounting for 90.94% of these cases. There was no statistically significant difference in the incidence of CD between the criminal group and the illegal group, but the criminal group scored higher on aggression than the illegal group. The adolescents with CDs differed from the typically developed adolescents in demographic characteristics, parenting style, individual characteristics, and deviant peer affiliation. Discriminant analysis revealed that deviant peer affiliation had the greatest impact on the CDs of adolescents (structural matrix = 0.85), followed by the level of parental monitoring and moral disengagement. CD is widespread in Chinese juvenile delinquents. CD symptoms differ between criminal and illegal juvenile delinquents. Risk factors such as deviant peer affiliation, inadequate parental monitoring, moral disengagement, and low parental warmth all contribute to the high prevalence of CD.