Invasion Of Britain Research Articles

Structure-Properties Relations in Cheese

Cheese is a popular food among people of all ages and its popularity stems from its nutritional value and convenience. Cheese comes in many varieties, shapes, and sizes. It makes an ideal snack food. The recent expansion of ethnic foods that include cheese as an ingredient is somewhat responsible for the increased use of cheese. Per capita consumption of cheese has roughly doubled over the past 20 years. The annual U.S. per capita consumption increased from 12.4 to 24.7 lbs. Rapidly expanding restaurant pizza sales and changes in lifestyles that emphasize convenience food are also major factors affecting cheese trends. The increasing popularity of pizza has caused consumption of mozzarella cheese to more than double in the past decade alone. Cheese sales in 1993 reached about $17.2 billion. Concerns over fat intake and its affect on health has resulted in a growing production of the “light” varieties, which represent about 38% of all new cheese products introduced in the past two years.The origin of cheese as a staple in the human diet is lost in history. By some accounts, cheese has been around for 6,000 to 7,000 years. It was standard fare for the Egyptians of about 2000 B.C. and many types were made by the Romans. Cheese making skills were brought by settlers who migrated due to famine, conflicts, and invasions. The Roman invasion of Britain brought a new art of cheesemaking to that country, although cheese may have been made there previously.

Claudius' British Victory Arch in Rome

The victories that followed Claudius' invasion of Britain in A.D. 43 were celebrated by a lavish and extensive triumph in Rome in the following year. Moreover, as a more permanent and visible reminder of the emperor's successes, two victory arches, one in Gesoriacum (Boulogne), his embarkation point, and the other in Rome, were decreed by the Senate. No trace of the Boulogne structure has survived; the Roman arch, on the other hand, is one of the most intriguing monuments of the Julio-Claudian period, presenting scholars with a series of epigraphic and architectural problems. The purpose of this paper is primarily to attempt to throw some light on the epigraphic issue, but since, as will become clear, any discussion of the arch's inscriptions must take place within the context of its architecture and decoration, the latter will be considered first.

The Invasion of Britain in A. D. 43 - An Alternative Strategy for Aulus Plautius

The invasion of Britain, which was carried out by four legions plus auxiliaries under A. Plautius some time in the high summer of A.D. 43, and the subsequent sixteen-day expedition made by the emperor, Claudius, in person in the autumn of that year, form together one of the most famous, if not one of the best understood, episodes in the history of the Roman Empire. In spite of the apparent familiarity of the event our knowledge of the way in which the invasion was planned, and of the route followed, is scanty in the extreme. It is based in part on a very brief summary of Claudius' own journey to Britain, which was a separate expedition of reinforcement, undertaken in order to associate Claudius personally with the prestige of the project. This is described by Suetonius in his Divus Claudius, written some eighty years after the event, but the chief source for the whole invasion is the narrative in Greek given by the historian Cassius Dio some century and a half after the expedition. To these can be added short references of a mere sentence in length, also in Suetonius' Caesares. They relate to the presence of the future emperor, Galba, in Claudius' entourage in Gaul, and to the large part played by Vespasian, and his brother and son, in the early stages of the Roman conquest. Another, and earlier, mention of Vespasian's part in the conquest is to be found in Josephus' Bellum Judaicum, but it contributes no useful or circumstantial detail, and indeed nothing but praise of Josephus' patrons, the Flavian dynasty. Later Roman historians, such as Aurelius Victor and the anonymous writer of De Caesaribus, merely give abbreviated versions of the already meagre information retailed by the historians of the second and early third centuries. Eutropius does add some circumstantial detail, namely that Gn. Sentius (Saturninus) was jointly in command of the expedition with A. Plautius, and that the Orkney Islands (Orcades) were received under Roman control by Claudius. This submission, if it is historical, must have been received through envoys at very long distance, while Claudius was in Colchester. This latter item is repeated by the early fifth-century Christian writer, Orosius.

The Roman Invasion of Britain

The Roman Invasion of Britain

Some Observations On North Sea Developments Relative To Canada''s East Coast*

Introduction This paper originally was in the form of an address to the Mining Society of Nova Scotia, 19th Annual Fall Meeting, Sydney, Nova Scotia, November 20, 1982. In this presentation, the paper was entitled " Some North Sea Experiences With Offshore Hydrocarbon Developments ". History The experience of North Sea countries with oil and gas is, of course, very recent. Since at least the period of the Roman invasion of Britain, the North Sea has been a centre of trade and its principal natural resource has been fish. To the Anglo-Saxons in Britain, the North Sea brought the feared Norse hordes who were less than welcome guests in their country (actually kingdoms). During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the North Sea was the centre of trade in Northern Europe under the Hanseatic League. Cities such as Hamburg and Lubeck in Germany. Bruges (present day Brussels) in what was then France, London, and Bergen in Norway became important centres of trade. After the decline of the Hanseatic League, London continued to thrive but was rivaled in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by Amsterdam, which became a major trading and commercial centre. Much of this history is irrelevant to the present day experience of North Sea countries with offshore development but it is included to give some perspective to the very short experience North Sea countries have had with oil and gas compared to their long experience with trade, commerce and fishing. Turning to the recent North Sea experience, it has been slated that as late as 1958, a staff geologist with the Norwegian Geological Survey said he would drink all the oil that would be found on the Norwegian Continental Shelf (Stenstadvold, 1981, p.l). Such was the attitude to the prospects of finding offshore hydrocarbons until the mid-1960s. The first significant discovery of hydrocarbons by a North Sea country was not made offshore, but rather onshore, in the Netherlands, in 1959. In that year, the massive Slochteren gas field in Groningen Province, with estimated recoverable reserves of 63 trillion cubic feet, was discovered. Apparently, this discovery was not taken as an indication of the potential for oil and gas discoveries offshore as offshore drilling did not begin until several years later. In 1963 and 1964, Norway and the United Kingdom, respectively, declared sovereignty over their continental shelves. Offshore drilling licenses were issued very soon after sovereignty was declared but it was not until 1965 that the boundary between the United Kingdom and Norway was agreed to. The 1958 Geneva Continental Shelf Convention provided for the sovereign right of states to explore and exploit natural resources of the sea bed on the continental shelf to a depth of 200 metres, to the limits which exploitation of natural resources was feasible or, failing agreement between two littoral countries, to a line equidistant between them.

The Roman Invasion of Britain

The Roman Invasion of Britain

Chronological Errors in Dio's Account of the Claudian Invasion

HE Roman invasion of Britain in A.D. 43 was an event of great importance both for the future history of the island and for the emperor Claudius' attempt to establish for himself a reputation as a great military commander, and it is unfortunate that there is not more reliable information on the campaign. The chapters of Tacitus' Annals that covered the years A.D. 37-47 are missing, and the summary of events in Britain in the Agricola says very little about the invasion. Suetonius' review of the campaign (Claud. 17) is very brief and (to Claudius) extremely hostile. Accordingly, so far as literary evidence is concerned, we must rely almost entirely on the account provided by Dio (6o. 19-24). His description of the campaign seems relatively straightforward, but there are places where modern historians have felt inclined to treat his judgement with caution. For example, his apparent acceptance at face value of the arrangement that Claudius would come to the aid of Plautius in the event of a genuine emergency seems naive. However, the possible weaknesses of Dio's judgement on this and similar points are not too difficult to discern; it is in points of detail that his errors have, in fact, been most misleading, and it might be useful to draw attention to two chronological errors in his account of the invasion that have escaped comment. The first is a relatively minor detail. Dio tells us that on his departure for Britain Claudius handed over control of affairs in Rome to L. Vitellius, who, with Claudius, had held the

A Survey of Tile from the Roman Bath House at Beauport Park, Battle, E. Sussex

One of the reasons for the Roman invasion of Britain was the hope of exploiting the natural resources of the country. It was not long before there was considerable iron-working in the Weald, especially in the area round Battle, East Sussex. Iron slag is to be seen at several sites, but little excavation of these has taken place. The best evidence for iron-working comes from Beauport Park, where a vast slag heap was discovered in 1862: much of this was removed during the 1870s for road-making, and there was no excavation of the site until the writer began work in 1967, and after three years' search found a building that proved to be a bath-house (FIG. 1).

Legio VIII Augusta and the Claudian Invasion

The belief that legio VIII Augusta , either in whole or in part, had a share in the invasion of Britain in A.D. 43 has received notable support in recent years, not least from Professor S. S. Frere in Britannia . The participation of the legion is regarded as a probability by D. R. Dudley and G. Webster in both their recent books, and has been endorsed by the editor of Some inscriptions from Roman Britain , where the epigraphic evidence is given. The idea received no mention in the definitive works of either Collingwood or Richmond, and was rejected long ago by Ritterling. A fresh examination may therefore be in order of the actual evidence for the presence of the legion in Britain at this time.

Batavians and the Roman Conquest of Britain

Tacitus's account of the Claudian invasion of Britain and the campaigns that followed it down to the year 47 is unfortunately lost, and historians have to be content with Dio, who gives the only consecutive account, supplemented by scattered references in other sources. This short note is an attempt to extract a few more fragments of information from these literary sources and in particular it concerns the part played by Rome's Batavian auxiliaries.

The Aylesford-Swarling Culture: The Problem of the Belgae reconsidered

Until the discovery of the Aylesford urnfield seventy-five years ago, the Belgae were still no more than dramatis personae in Caesar's Gallic War. It was Sir Arthur Evans who first identified the users of the Aylesford cemetery with the invaders ex Belgio referred to by Caesar. Reginald Smith's publication of the Welwyn grave-groups (1912) and then Bushe-Fox's excavation of the Swarling urnfield (1925) were followed, in 1930, by Hawkes' and Dunning's account of the history of the British and Continental Belgic tribes, which has remained the standard work on the subject ever since.Thus, it has been accepted that the archaeological material of Aylesford-Swarling type represents the introduction of Belgic culture into Britain. Its continental origins were traced to northern Gaul, the area occupied by the historical Belgae, where a similar series of cremation burials of Late La Tène date is known. This continental series, thought to mark a change from what seemed to be the universal practice of inhumation as mode of burial to cremation, was interpreted as representative of a fusion of inhuming Galli with cremating Germani from across the Rhine. This fusion, leading to the formation of the Belgae, who, as Caesar records, boasted of their ‘Germanic’ origin, was thought to have taken place in the latter half of the 2nd century B.C. The date for the first Belgic invasion of Britain was put at about 75 B.C.

Contributions to a Study of the Belgae

The Belgae have, in the last generation, played an increasingly important part in the archaeology of Britain in the pre-Roman Iron Age. In general the term has been confined to the two groups of invaders, who practised cremation and whose cemeteries have been traced over a wide area in the south-east and south of England. Beyond this area Belgic influence, in various forms, has been postulated in a number of districts. The Belgic origin of the invaders who practised cremation is not in doubt and it would be superfluous at this stage to argue the case once more. The nature of the Belgic influences traced beyond the area of the cremation cemeteries is more debatable, but the present essay is not intended to enter into that question. It is concerned with an earlier period and earlier invasions, which also have a right to be termed Belgic. The ultimate origin of the Continental Belgae will not be discussed, nor do the invasions considered necessarily cover all those settlements to which the term Belgic should be applied. As will be seen the traditional Irish accounts appear to demand a Belgic settlement in Britain at a date earlier than the oldest groups now identified. This is a question that can hardly be discussed to full advantage until a far wider conspectus of archaeological material is available both on the Continent and in these islands. In the meantime the question of a Belgic invasion of Britain in the Late Bronze Age is one that must remain open.

REVIEWS

Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. Fifth Series, vol. i. London: Royal Historical Society Map of Monastic Britain (North Sheet) and (South Sheet). Chessington: Ordnance Survey Crown, Community and Parliament in the Later Middle Ages: Studies in English Constitutional History. By Gaillard Lapsley The Turbulent London of Richard II. By Ruth Bird Studies in Leicestershire Agrarian History. Edited by W. G. Hoskins George III, Lord North, and the People, 1779–1780. By H. Butterfield The Last Invasion of Britain. By Commander E. H. Stuart Jones Jacob Burckhardt: eine Biographie. By Werner Kakgi Jacob Burckhardt: Briefe. Edited by Max Burckhardt The Life of Joseph Chamberlain: vol. iv, 1901–1903. By Julian Amery George Wyndham: A Study in Toryism. By John Biggs‐Davison Outer Mongolia and its International Position. By Gerard M. Friters Russia and the West in Iran, 1918–1948. By George Lenczowski Documents of British Foreign Policy, 1919–1939: Second Series, vol. iv, 1932–3. Edit, by E. L. Woodward and Rohan Butler A Short History of the Second World War and its Social and Political Significance. By Strategicus

Reviews of Books

Abstract Hitler's War Machine and the Invasion of Britain. By Wilhelm Necker. Translated by H. Leigh Farnell. (Lindsay Drummond.) 12s. 6d. A History of the Uniforms of the British Army. By Cecil C. P. Lawson. Vol. 2, 1714 to 1760. (Peter Davies.) 15s.1 Home Guard Warfare. By John Langdon-Davies. (George Routledge & Sons.) 2s. 6d. So Few. By David Masters. (Eyre & Spottiswoode.) 6s. Safety in Flight. By Assen Jordanoff. (Funk & Wagnalls Co.) 16s. 6d.

Was there a Second Belgic Invasion (represented by bead-rim pottery)?

It is generally accepted that the invasion of Britain by the Belgae, alluded to by Caesar, is represented archaeologically by the Aylesford-Swarling-Welwyn type of pedestalled urns and their associated objects. These urns are found in a pretty well defined area of south-eastern England, including the counties of Essex, Kent, Middlesex, Hertford, Buckingham, and parts of Bedford and Cambridge.

Invasion of Britain

Invasion of Britain Get access A. C. M. A. C. M. Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Notes and Queries, Volume s3-X, Issue 260, 22 December 1866, Page 493, https://doi.org/10.1093/nq/s3-X.260.493g Published: 22 December 1866

The Invasion of Britain by Julius Catsar; with Replies to the Remarks of the Astronomer Royal, and of the late Camden Professor of Ancient History at Oxford

The Invasion of Britain by Julius Catsar; with Replies to the Remarks of the Astronomer Royal, and of the late Camden Professor of Ancient History at Oxford

The invasion of Britain by Julius Cæsar

The invasion of Britain by Julius Cæsar