Inundation Depth Research Articles

Rehydration of degraded wetlands: Understanding drivers of vegetation community trajectories

AbstractDegradation of wetland ecosystems results from loss of hydrologic connectivity, nutrient enrichment, and altered fire regimes, among other factors. It is uncertain how drivers of wetland ecosystem processes and wetland vegetation communities interact in reversing the ecological trajectory from degraded to restored conditions. We analyzed biogeochemical and vegetation data collected in wetlands of the Florida Everglades at the start of (2015) and during (2018 and 2021) the initial stages of rehydration. Our objectives were to analyze the allocation of carbon and nutrients among ecosystem compartments and correlated trajectories of vegetation community change following rehydration, to identify the drivers of change, including fire, and analyze macrophyte species‐specific responses to drivers. We expected to see changes in vegetation toward more hydric communities that would differ based on wetland baseline conditions and the magnitude of the hydrologic change. During the study period, both length of inundation and surface water depth increased throughout wetlands in the region, and four fires occurred, which affected 51% of the sampling locations. We observed biogeochemical shifts in the wetland landscape, driven by both hydrology and fire. Total phosphorus concentrations in soil and flocculent detrital material decreased, while soil carbon:phosphorus and nitrogen:phosphorus mass ratios increased at sites further away from water management infrastructure. Transitions in vegetation communities were driven by an increase in hydroperiods and by the distinct changes in nutrient concentrations or soil stoichiometric ratios in each subregion. The abundance of macrophyte species typical of short‐hydroperiod prairies strongly decreased, while dominant long‐hydroperiod species, such as Eleocharis cellulosa, expanded. Fire facilitated the expansion of thickly vegetated plumes of invasive Typha at sites close to the water inflow sources. Overall, restored hydrology shifted vegetation community composition toward higher abundance of long‐hydroperiod species within six years. In contrast, removal of invasive vegetation controlled by soil phosphorus concentrations will likely require long‐term and interactive restoration strategies.

Flood Risk Assessment of the Middle Reach of the Helmand River, Afghanistan

The middle reach of the Helmand River is prone to floods, and flood hazard analysis is necessary to manage the flood risk. As the study site is a less-developed basin where available geographical and hydrological data are limited, we must utilize available limited data to conduct the flood hazard analysis. A frequency analysis of the annual peak flow rate was performed using available hydrological data for making representative flood hydrographs. A land-use map is derived by classifying recent Landsat images. Digital elevation model derived by Advanced Land Observing Satellite, roughness coefficient correlated with the land-use map, and the representative flood hydrographs are fed into hydraulic model HEC-RAS 2D. Flood inundation area, depth, and velocity for different flood return periods are estimated. Based on local hazard intensity and vulnerability, risk maps for evacuation and vulnerability of crops on the floodplain are obtained. Spatial flood risk characteristics differ at the upstream and downstream reaches because of distinct floodplain topography. Flood countermeasures for each reach are proposed based on the spatial characteristics of the flood risk. To provide risk information for residents within the region, the flood hazard, risk, and damage maps derived in this study are published as a web map application and a mobile native application.

Tsunami hazard evaluation of river embankment structures incorporating their vulnerability to seismic strong motion

Development of coastal areas in Japan for various land uses since the 1960s has contributed to industrial upgrades and improved the efficiency of transportation networks. However, there are concerns about the vulnerability of developments on alluvial plains and reclaimed lands to geological events, like ground subsidence due to liquefaction during large earthquakes. Realistic assessment of earthquake and tsunami hazards and evaluation of possible countermeasures require accurate estimation of the amount of subsidence that can be expected from liquefaction at coastal and riverside sites supporting various structures. In this study, to evaluate the amount a river embankment structure might be expected to settle as a result of strong motion from an assumed Nankai Trough great earthquake, we conducted a numerical simulation using the soil–water coupled finite deformation analysis code GEOASIA. We then investigated the effect of the estimated embankment subsidence on tsunami inundation, which was simulated by using nonlinear shallow-water equations and a grid spacing as fine as 3.3 m. The influence of urban structures on the inundated area was taken into account by using a structure-embedded elevation model (SEM). The results showed that subsidence of river embankments and the collapse of parapet walls on top of them would increase both the depth and area of inundation caused by a tsunami triggered by a Nankai Trough scenario earthquake. Our findings underscore the importance of evaluating not only earthquake resistance but also vulnerability of coastal and riverside structures to strong motion in tsunami hazard analyses. Furthermore, the importance of tsunami inundation analysis using a SEM for predicting the behavior of tsunami flotsam in urban areas was demonstrated.

An efficient 2-D flood inundation modelling based on a data-driven approach

Study regionThe plain areas of Yilan County in Taiwan. Study focusThe present study employed hourly precipitation and inundation simulation data from a 5-km resolution HiRAM-WRF (High-Resolution Atmospheric Model-Weather Research and Forecasting) downscaled model and a 40-m resolution SOBEK model to construct a data-driven two-dimensional flood inundation model (D2DFIM) based on the support vector regression (SVR) approach. New hydrological insights for the regionThe dataset comprised 149 rainfall events and corresponding inundation events. We extracted the inundated and interpolated rainfall grid points distributed across Yilan County, Taiwan, from the SOBEK and HiRAM-WRF models. The D2DFIM (data-driven two-dimensional flood inundation model) utilized the parallel computing approach in the training phase, saving 90% of the elapsed time. The comparisons between the data-driven and physical-based models indicate that the D2DFIM could perform better in flood simulation if the input features comprised previous inundation depth and the last three time steps of rainfall information. Regarding the minimal required number of training samples, we found almost no significant difference in the flooding simulation once the training samples equalled or exceeded 50. Additionally, the elapsed time of D2DFIM is 9–10 times faster than that of SOBEK. We validated the well-developed D2DFIM using three historical inundated events induced by typhoons in Yilan County; the flood extents derived from the D2DFIM agreed well with the survey results.

Integration of RS and GIS in assessing flood risk: A Case Study on Istanbul - Esenyurt

Floods, exacerbated by escalating urbanization, pose significant threats to life and property globally. Over the past decade, the Esenyurt district in Istanbul has witnessed a series of floods, highlighting existing flood risks. Rapid population growth in this area and dense urbanization caused by intensive construction increase flood risks. Given these factors, the study focuses on examining the historical impact of urbanization on flood risks, considering spatial and temporal changes. Landsat-8 satellite data, specifically examining NDVI, NDBI, and BU, was employed to detect building imprints and reveal their historical backgrounds for temporal risk calculations. The analysis showed a sudden increase in urbanization rates in 2016, 2017, and 2021. In the flood risk calculations, 2014 data for a return period of 100 years were used and flood inundation depth, economic damages, affected population and depth-damage function were taken into consideration. The results indicate that from 2014 to 2022, increasing urbanization led to a 32.9% increase in the population affected by floods, a 22.3% rise in potential economic damage, and a 13.6% increase in total flood risk. The relationship between flood risks, contemporary urbanization, and its economic dimensions has been evaluated to reduce risks and achieve sustainable cities.

New perspective for the upscaling of plant functional response to flooding stress in salt marshes using remote sensing

Understanding the response of salt marshes to flooding is crucial to foresee the fate of these fragile ecosystems, requiring an upscaling approach. In this study we related plant species and community response to multispectral indices aiming at parsing the power of remote sensing to detect the environmental stress due to flooding in lagoon salt marshes. We studied the response of Salicornia fruticosa (L.) L. and associated plant community along a flooding and soil texture gradient in nine lagoon salt marshes in northern Italy. We considered community (i.e., species richness, dry biomass, plant height, dry matter content) and individual traits (i.e., annual growth, pigments, and secondary metabolites) to analyze the effect of flooding depth and its interplay with soil properties. We also carried out a drone multispectral survey, to obtain remote sensing-derived vegetation indices for the upscaling of plant responses to flooding. Plant diversity, biomass and growth all declined as inundation depth increased. The increase of soil clay content exacerbated flooding stress shaping S. fruticosa growth and physiological responses. Multispectral indices were negatively related with flooding depth. We found key species traits rather than other community traits to better explain the variance of multispectral indices. In particular stem length and pigment content (i.e., betacyanin, carotenoids) were more effective than other community traits to predict the spectral indices in an upscaling perspective of salt marsh response to flooding. We proved multispectral indices to potentially capture plant growth and plant eco-physiological responses to flooding at the large scale. These results represent a first fundamental step to establish long term spatial monitoring of marsh acclimation to sea level rise with remote sensing. We further stressed the importance to focus on key species traits as mediators of the entire ecosystem changes, in an ecological upscaling perspective.

An integrative modelling framework for predicting the compound flood hazards induced by tropical cyclones in an estuarine area

In this study, a novel numerical model is first developed, which can simulate compound floods under a framework comprehensively considering the combined effects of tide, river flow, rainfall, and wind. The modelling framework is applied to reproduce an extreme compound flood event in the Pearl River Delta caused by Typhoon Hato (2017). The model is estimated to perform reasonably well, which can yield consistent results compared with observations including winds, water levels, and inundation depths over the study area. Inundation was concentrated on downstream estuaries and floodplains and coastal forcings played a dominant role in this compound event. However, ignoring river and rainfall contributions would result in an underestimation of flood extent and water levels that could be up to 48%. Sensitivity tests indicate that precise calibration of the roughness coefficient is more critical in river and estuarine environments than in land region. This study demonstrates the importance of utilizing an integrative framework to assess and predict compound flooding hazards driven by the effects of tropical cyclones.

Analyzing the hydraulic performance of water gates due to the impact of extreme rainfall on tidal lowlands: a case study in Katingan rice fields area, Central Kalimantan

Rice fields in the Katingan tidal lowlands are inundated due to spring tides and extreme rainfall. Excessive inundation in the rice fields causes crop failure. Therefore, the study was conducted to analyze the use of water gates in the secondary canals for controlling the inundation. The unsteady flow simulation boundary conditions are the upstream discharge with a return period of 5 and 25 years and measured tidal. The water flow is controlled by closing the sluice gates at the water level elevation of +3.50 m, and flap gates close during high tide and rainfall. This research shows that controlling the water flow by gates decreases the water level and inundation area. Under rainfall with a return period of 5 years, the inundation area decreased by 79.03 %, and the maximum water level decreased by 0.14 m. In the rainfall with a return period of 25 years, the inundation area decreased by 75.31%, and the maximum water level decreased by 0.11 m. The water gates’ operation incompletely decreases the inundation and water level beneath rice crops’ threshold inundation depth and duration. Therefore, there is a need for additional water control to optimize the decrease of inundation in the rice fields.

A preliminary assessment on spatial prioritization for integrated urban flood management based on source tracking method

With rapid urbanization and global climate change, the frequency of extreme rainfall and urban flooding has increased significantly, posing a serious threat to human life and property safety. Integrated urban flood management is an important component of urban planning that combines various infrastructure to effectively manage and utilize stormwater. This is essential for dealing with urban inundation disasters. Despite the implementation of numerous engineering and non-engineering measures, flood mitigation still faces a challenge in identifying spatial prioritization due to the lack of consideration for regional spatial connectivity. Taking Jinan City, China, as a case study, this research combined the flood source tracking method with the hydrodynamic model LISFLOOD-FP to identify the inundation area and its sources. Additionally, this study analyzed spatial hydrological connectivity was also analyzed in. The spatial prioritization was classified based on four intervention criteria: (Criterion 1) flooding extent; (Criterion 2) maximum inundation depth; (Criterion 3) flooding road network; (Criterion 4) flood exposure to buildings. Furthermore, the prioritization results of various combinations of criteria were also analyzed. Finally, the impact of rainfall intensity and grid cell size on the spatial prioritization was discussed. The results of this study emphasize the importance of spatial hydrological connectivity and flood sources. Various intervention criteria determine different spatial prioritization, highlighting the importance of developing multi-intervention criteria based on specific needs and objectives. The results indicated that sponge city pilot area in Jinan City has a high spatial prioritization. Rainfall intensity and grid cell size strongly influence the spatial prioritization, while these factors have little impact on their spatial distribution. This study demonstrates the novelty of combining intervention criteria and flood source tracking method and provides new perspectives and valuable references for urban flood mitigation.

Mapping of flood in the Juana Watershed for risk assessment

This research intends to map floods in the Juana Watershed. However, the flood disaster in the Seluna River system started when the flood land was developed for residential areas, agriculture as well as industry, so the damage potency due to the flood will increase. Along with the increasing of population number and density, the social impact that is more serious than flood will follow – like the threat of loss of life. The impact is the management of flood risk becomes more complex and expensive. The methodology for flood mapping consists of the assessment of flood index, vulnerability, and capacity. Determination of flood hazard index is carried out based on the classification of inundation depth. The process is carried out by using spatial calculation, so it can produce the risk map and grid value that can be used in arranging the explanation of the risk map. The result of flood mapping is hoped to be able to support the model development of flood risk management towards the area layout.

Flood teleconnections from levees undermine disaster resilience

Inland levees can amplify flood risk in unprotected communities by altering floodwater levels away from their location. While these nonlocal effects of levees, which we term flood teleconnections, have been studied for specific river segments, their impact on flood risks along a river network remains underexplored. By combining data-driven, hydrodynamic, and economic models, we quantify the magnitude, spatial distribution, and economic damages associated with flood teleconnections for a large river network system with extensive levees. We find that due to levees, the 100-year flood inundation extent grows by 25% of the total levee-protected area regionally, and the flood inundation depth increases by up to 2 m at specific locations. Levees also increase the vulnerability of unprotected, marginalized communities to flooding. Our results demonstrate that flood teleconnections are spatially widespread, involve unaccounted costs, and can lead to flood inequities. These findings will be critical to climate adaptation efforts in flood-prone regions.

Flood Modelling of Premulung River, Bengawan Solo

Premulung River or commonly known as Kali Premulung is one of many branches of Bengawan Solo River in its upstream area. This river pass through one of the most historical cities in Central Java, Surakarta. The overcapacity of this river leads to flood event that has a negative impact on humans. The purpose of this research is to analyze the Premulung River capacity and simulate the flood caused by rainfall design. The hydrological matter was analyzed using Hydrognomon and HEC-HMS while flood modelling was analyzed using HEC-RAS software one- and two-dimension (1D & 2D) simulation. Model calibrations were carried out based on historical flood events (depth, duration, and area of inundation) and local interview due to data limitation. Based on the simulation, the flood modelling shows that the current capacity of Premulung River cannot accommodate its peak discharge for two (Q2) and twenty years (Q20) return period flood. There are two main spots identified flooded due to Q2 flood with depth varies from 40 to 80 cm and duration from 4 hour to 7 hour. For Q20 flood, there are also two same spots identified flooded with depth varies from 1.2 m to 1.8 m and duration from 6 hour to 9 hour. The result of this study can be a reference for flood dike design in the future which still require further detailed investigation.

Real-time flood forecasting using an integrated hydrologic and hydraulic model for the Vamsadhara and Nagavali basins, Eastern India

AbstractDue to recent rainfall extremes and tropical cyclones that form over the Bay of Bengal during the pre- and post-monsoon seasons, the Nagavali and Vamsadhara basins in India experience frequent floods, causing significant loss of human life and damage to agricultural lands and infrastructure. This study provides an integrated hydrologic and hydraulic modeling system that is based on the Soil and Water Assessment Tool model and the 2-Dimensional Hydrological Engineering Centre-River Analysis System, which simulates floods using Global Forecasting System rainfall forecasts with a 48-h lead time. The integrated model was used to simulate the streamflow, flood area extent, and depth for the historical flood events (i.e., 1991–2018) with peak discharges of 1200 m3/s in the Nagavali basin and 1360 m3/s in the Vamsadhara basin. The integrated model predicted flood inundation depths that were in good agreement with observed inundation depths provided by the Central Water Commission. The inundation maps generated by the integrated modeling system with a 48-h lead time for tropical cyclone Titli demonstrated an accuracy of more than 75%. The insights gained from this study will help the public and government agencies make better decisions and deal with floods.

A rapid simplified method for determining tsunami inundation extent based on energy conservation

AbstractThis paper develops a tsunami inundation model, filling the current void between industry applied simplified methods (bathtub and attenuation) and comprehensive numerical modeling. The proposed model utilizes two‐dimensional equations established on hydraulic principles (energy conservation and friction loss) to produce the finite‐difference, two‐dimensional model. While the sophistication of depth‐averaged numerical modeling has not been entirely replicated, the incorporation of hydraulic roughness and gravitational effects (slope) through the Bernoulli energy equation, accompanied by suitable assumptions, significantly improves performance over simplified bathtub and attenuation methods. This improvement not only retains excellent efficiency (completing case studies in under 100 s) but also yields inundation results comparable to traditional numerical modeling, which typically takes multiple hours to days. This is the first application of such equations to a two‐dimensional tsunami inundation model, leading to simulations at Gisborne and Christchurch, New Zealand, for validation against the numerical model, COMCOT. F1 scores produced from inundation extent comparisons were upwards of 84%. Inundation depth discrepancies recorded 77% within a 1 m range, while over 93% within a 2 m range.

Estimating peak flow of Farahzad River in Tehran under climate change and debris flow scenarios: A novel approach and its implications for urban flood hazard mapping

Abstract Urban river flooding is a serious threat to cities that have altered their river buffer zones due to urbanization and climate change. This study aims to estimate the peak flow of urban rivers by considering the effects of climate change and debris flow on flood hazard. A novel approach is proposed that integrates hydrological, sedimentological, and hydraulic method and models to account for the influence of sediment volume, woody debris, and culvert blockage on peak flow estimation and flow parameters. The approach is applied to the Farahzad River basin in Tehran, Iran, using future data downscaled from a global climate model under the RCP8.5 scenario for 50- and 100-year return periods. The results show a significant increase in the peak flood discharge by nearly 3.2 times, the flood zone by 10–20%, the flood velocity by 15–30%, and the inundation depth by 10–40% due to climate change and debris flow scenarios. The study demonstrates the importance of considering multiple factors in estimating the peak flow of urban rivers and provides a useful tool for urban flood risk management.

A study of land use changes and its impacts on flood inundation in the Konkoure River Basin, Republic of Guinea.

Due to rising land development, mitigating the negative effects of land use change is becoming a problem. Understanding how land development affects flood inundation is critical for long-term water resource management. This study evaluates the land use change in the Konkoure River Basin and its impact on flood inundation. The land use changes were assessed using Landsat image (level 1) in August 2006 and August 2021. In addition, we used GIS and remote sensing applications to assess the degree of changes that took place in the Konkoure watershed. According to the findings, 32.16% of the total area became built-up areas, and 35.51% was converted to other land uses in Konkoure watershed. Konkoure's most significant change is that 29.50% of forest area transformed into built-up areas and other land uses. The rainfall-runoff-inundation model (RRI) based inundation of the Konkoure River Basin was compared to the MODIS extent between 31 August 2006 and 30 August 2021 flood events. Flood inundation variations in the Konkoure watershed were studied in terms of inundation area, peak inundation depth, runoff volume, and the infiltration rate. As a result, the flood inundation area increased from 139.98 to 198.72 km2 and the infiltration rate decrease from 7 to 5mm/h. Moreover, we used flow duration curves (FDCs) to fully comprehend the streamflow processes. The result indicates that the Konkoure watershed has experienced flooding partly due to land use change.

High efficiency integrated urban flood inundation simulation based on the urban hydrologic unit

As the impact of flooding intensifies globally in metropolitan areas, there is an urgent need for high-resolution flood forecasting models to facilitate preparedness and mitigate flood impacts. In response, we have proposed a high efficiency algorithm (HEA) designed to simulate urban flood inundation, leveraging the urban hydrologic unit (UHU) concept from an urban hydrological cycle perspective. The HEA significantly reduces the computational demands associated with high-resolution modeling by using a hydrologic unit derived from the digital elevation model (DEM). This approach effectively shifts the overwhelming burden of computational load to the hydrodynamic algorithm (HDA), which is grounded in the Shallow Water Equations (SWEs), thus enabling efficient flood inundation simulation crucial for time-critical decision making during extreme events. Our research also incorporated the HEA and HDA methods into a self-developed, distributed-framework basin modeling system, named the Taihu Basin Model (TBM). Both the HEA and HDA models were calibrated and validated with observed data on pipe level, flow rate, and inundation depth from our Shuangqiaobang experimental fields. Comparative analysis, focusing on simulated urban flood inundation distribution characteristics, simulation accuracy and timeliness, demonstrated the superior effieicney of the HEA method by three orders of magnitude. The consistency between observed data and the simulated results of both HEA and HDA models underscores the accuracy and reliablility of these models. The HEA model’s simulated urban flood inundation distribution appears more patchy and localized compared to the HDA model, due to the generalization of urban UHUs in the TBM.

Influence of rainfall pattern and infiltration capacity on the spatial and temporal inundation characteristics of urban waterlogging.

The rapid development of the city leads to the continuous updating of the land use allocation ratio, particularly during the flood season, which will exacerbate the significant changes in the spatial and temporal patterns of urban flooding, increasing the difficulty of urban flood forecasting and early warning. In this study, the spatial and temporal evolution of flooding in a high-density urban area was analyzed based on the Mike Flood model, and the influence mechanisms of different rainfall peak locations and infiltration rate scenarios on the spatial and temporal characteristics of urban waterlogging were explored. The results revealed that under the same return period, the larger the rainfall peak coefficient, the larger the peak value of inundation volume and inundation area. When the rainfall peak coefficient is small, the higher the return period is, and the larger the peak lag time of the inundation volume is, in which P = 50a, r = 0.2, the peak lag time of the inundation volume reached 32min and 45min for the inundation depths H > 0.03 m and H > 0.15 m, respectively. There are also significant differences in the peak lag time of waterlogging inundation volume for different inundation depths. The greater the inundation depth, the longer the peak lag time of the inundation volume, and the higher the return period, the more significant the effect of lag time prolongation. It is worth noting that the increase in infiltration rate may lead to an advance in the peak time of inundation volume and inundation area, and the peak time of the inundation area is overall more obvious than that of inundation volume. The effect of infiltration rate on the peak time of inundation volume for larger inundation depths was relatively large; the peak times of inundation volume and inundation area were advanced by 4-6 min and 4-8 min for H > 0.03 m and H > 0.15 m, respectively, after the increase in infiltration rate, and the higher the rainfall return period, the longer the advance time. The spatial and temporal characteristics of waterlogging under different peak rainfall locations and infiltration capacities obtained in this study can help provide a new perspective for temporal forecasting and warning of urban waterlogging.

Suitability of the height above nearest drainage (HAND) model for flood inundation mapping in data-scarce regions: a comparative analysis with hydrodynamic models

Unprecedented floods from extreme rainfall events worldwide emphasize the need for flood inundation mapping for floodplain management and risk reduction. Access to flood inundation maps and risk evaluation tools remains challenging in most parts of the world, particularly in rural regions, leading to decreased flood resilience. The use of hydraulic and hydrodynamic models in rural areas has been hindered by excessive data and computational requirements. In this study, we mapped the flood inundation in Huron Creek watershed, Michigan, USA for an extreme rainfall event (1000-year return period) that occurred in 2018 (Father’s Day Flood) using the Height Above Nearest Drainage (HAND) model and a synthetic rating curve developed from LIDAR DEM. We compared the flood inundation extent and depth modeled by the HAND with flood inundation characteristics predicted by two hydrodynamic models, viz., HEC-RAS 2D and SMS-SRH 2D. The flood discharge of the event was simulated using the HEC-HMS hydrologic model. Results suggest that, in different channel segments, the HAND model produces different degrees of concurrence in both flood inundation extent and depth when compared to the hydrodynamic models. The differences in flood inundation characteristics produced by the HAND model are primarily due to the uncertainties associated with optimal parameter estimation of the synthetic rating curve. Analyzing the differences between the HAND and hydrodynamic models also highlights the significance of terrain characteristics in model predictions. Based on the comparable predictive capability of the HAND model to map flood inundation areas during extreme rainfall events, we demonstrate the suitability of the HAND-based approach for mitigating flood risk in data-scarce, rural regions.

Numerical Assessment of Tsunami Forces on Vertical Wall Structures: Impact of Inundation Depth and Incident Fluid Velocity

This study evaluates the tsunami forces exerted on a terrestrial structure caused by a collision-induced tsunami. Conventionally, assessing these forces relies on the inundation depth of the colliding tsunami passing without the presence of the terrestrial structure. However, it is essential to consider the inundation depth and incident fluid velocity, as both significantly influence the resulting tsunami forces. In this research, ANSYS Fluent 17.2 is employed to simulate excitation sources using a Defined Function (UDF) code within a C++ framework. The dynamic meshing technique is adopted to replicate the interactions between the bore pressure of the tsunami and an idealised vertical wall structure across three distinct water levels. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modelling demonstrates the proposed methodology's capability to offer precise impact pressure distributions concerning geographical and temporal aspects. The findings reveal specific instances: at a water depth of 10 m, the maximum Froude number is attained at 3.5 and 6.9 seconds, corresponding to a maximum pressure value of 3.9x105 Pa at 3.85 seconds for a water flow velocity of 20 m/sec. Similarly, for a water depth of 12 m, the most significant Froude number is observed at 3.95 and 6.9 seconds, with a peak pressure value of 1.8x105 Pa at 4.6 seconds, associated with a water flow velocity of 15 m/s. Additionally, at a water depth of 14 m, the maximum Froude number is reached at 4.95 and 7.1 seconds, accompanied by a maximum pressure value of 7.4x104 Pa at 4.85 seconds for a water flow velocity of 10 m/s.