Introductory Psychology Students Research Articles

F. S. KELLER'S "SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT" SUPPLEMENT TO KELLER AND SCHOENFELD (1950)

Fred Keller prepared two supplements for students to use in con- junction with Keller and Schoenfeld (1950), “Matters of History” and “Schedules of Reinforcement.” The latter was found in a to-be-discarded file of Murray Sidman’s reprints and other items after his death in May, 2019. After presenting evidence concerning the authorship of the supplement, the relation of the contents to the article to the teaching of behavior analysis to introductory psychology students in the course for which the Keller and Schoenfeld textbook was designed are discussed. The text is a remarkable example of the teaching of scientific principles and research methods - especially group and single-subject designs – because it is so rich with data derived from real experiments. It offered to introductory students facts and no fiction. It also is exemplary in its attention to relating scientific concepts to daily experience, a critical feature of scientific material directed to such introductory- level students.

A Classroom Study on the Role of Prior Knowledge and Retrieval Tool in the Testing Effect

This quasi-experimental study investigated the role of prior psychology knowledge and in-class retrieval activity in the testing effect. Undergraduate introductory psychology students ( N = 53) from two classes at a small liberal arts college practiced retrieving information in class with multiple-choice quizzing and concept mapping. Prior psychology knowledge was measured using a 25-item multiple-choice pretest. Both students with high and low prior psychology knowledge had higher scores on examination material that was practiced in class with retrieval-based concept mapping compared to traditional multiple-choice quizzes and to no organized in-class retrieval activity at all. Only students with high prior psychology knowledge had higher scores on quizzed material compared to no organized in-class retrieval practice, and these scores were lower than those on material that was practiced with in-class concept mapping. In comparison to administering multiple-choice quiz questions, a more useful in-class activity might be to have students, especially those with less prior psychology knowledge, practice retrieving material through free recall and connection building activities such as a concept map.

Effects of Observation With and Without Technology on Learning in Introductory and Advanced Courses

Cost and time constraints make it challenging to include hands-on laboratory experiences in psychology courses, yet engaging laboratory experiences can increase scientific literacy and appreciation. The present study tested whether learning by observing could also increase scientific literacy (knowledge of social neuroscience). We additionally assessed whether the technology mattered, by comparing students who participated in a “low-technology” demonstration (finger pulse count) versus a “high-technology” demonstration (pulse recording via psychophysiological recording equipment). Undergraduate students observed pulse rate measures prior to and following a social challenge, in a 2 (Student Type: Introductory vs. Advanced) × 2 (Technology: High vs. Low) factorial design. Results revealed that technology yielded equal effects on scientific literacy, while perceived learning for psychology as a science increased significantly (albeit modestly) for students in the high-technology condition. These data confirm that adding laboratory experiences of any type can facilitate scientific literacy in introductory and advanced psychology students.

Methodological Thinking Drills: A Novel Technique for Boosting Real-World Methodological Thinking Ability

Multiple studies have demonstrated the efficacy of various psychological critical thinking interventions. The current study tests a novel technique for improving introductory psychology students’ ability to identify and evaluate methodological concepts in real-life media by prompting them to analyze secondary source news and blog articles. Participants randomly assigned to the experimental group completed three separate methodological thinking drills (MTDs), whereas control participants completed two reflection activities followed by a single MTD. Evidence for the effectiveness of the MTD intervention was found with respect to the within-group comparisons in the experimental condition and also the between-group comparison, indicating linear improvements in scores over time and across groups. These results suggest that methodological thinking can be taught and assessed simultaneously using a single, internally valid procedure.

Self‐regulated studying behavior, and the social norms that influence it

AbstractTeachers commonly use injunctive norms when telling students what they should be doing. But researchers find that sometimes descriptive norms, information about what others are actually doing, are more powerful influencers of behavior. In the present work, we examine which norm is more effective at increasing self‐regulated studying and performance in an online college course across two semesters. To do this, we randomly assigned 751 undergraduate Introductory Psychology students to receive email messages at the start of every content unit that either contained descriptive norms, injunctive norms, information about the course, or a no message control. We found that injunctive norms increased study behaviors aimed at fulfilling course requirements (completion of assigned activities), but did not improve learning outcomes. Descriptive norms increased behaviors aimed at improving knowledge (ungraded practice with activities after they were due), and improved performance. These results suggest that norms more effectively influence behavior when there is a match, or a sense of fit, between the goal of the behavior (fulfilling course requirements vs. learning) and the pull of a stated norm (social approval vs. efficacy). We discuss these implications with respect to students' motivations for self‐regulated studying behavior in contemporary learning environments, and the overall goals of education.

Me, Myself and Us? The Relationship between Ethnic Identity and Hope, Resilience and Family Relationships among Different Ethnic Groups

For ethnic minority populations, ethnic identity is associated with an increase in psychological well-being while also being recognized as a protective factor against discrimination and family distress. The aim of this study is to determine the association between ethnic identity and resilience, hope, social connectedness, experiences of discrimination and family relations in a diverse group of ethnicities. This study is correlational in nature and took place at Mount Royal University, located in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, between January and April 2019. We included 326 introductory psychology students ranging in age from 17 to 48 with participants identifying as White, Asian, South Asian, Mixed, Black, Latino, First Nations, Metis, Inuit, and Middle Eastern. Participants were asked to complete six questionnaires measuring ethnic identity, resilience, hope, social connectedness, experiences of discrimination and family relations. Results revealed a significant relationship between ethnic identity and hope (r = .14, p = .01). Additionally, family relationships were a significant moderator of the relationship between ethnic identity and resilience (F(1, 322) = 4.98, p < .05). Finally, White participants had a significantly weaker ethnic identity when compared to the Asian, South Asian and Black participants (Welch’s F(7,41) = 9.39, p = .001,η 2= .22). Ethnic identity is associated with higher levels of hope, while strong family relationships moderate the relationship between ethnic identity and resilience. Furthermore, individuals who identify as White have a weaker ethnic identity compared to individuals who identify as Asian, South Asian and Black. More research is required to understand ethnic identity in the White population to help bring awareness to the power and privilege associated with Whiteness and to find ways in which this awareness can help reduce systemic racism and discrimination.

The Importance of Taking Psychology: A Comparison of Three Levels of Exposure

We compared the performance of senior psychology majors, introductory psychology students, and similarly aged individuals with no college psychology on seven different outcome measures including multiple-choice knowledge tests, attitudes, and open-ended scenarios requiring qualitative responses. On all measures, both senior psychology majors and introductory psychology students significantly outperformed individuals with no college psychology. However, the absolute magnitude of introductory psychology student performance would be depicted as a failing grade at most institutions (i.e., below 60% correct). We discuss this pattern of results in the context of judging the effectiveness of the major, the role of the introductory psychology course, and judging the effectiveness of the assessment/outcome measures utilized.

Studying for Introductory Psychology: Differences Across Technical College, 2-, and 4-Year Institutions

Three hundred thirty-three Introductory Psychology (IP) students from a 4-year university, 2-year community college, and a technical college provided survey data. Student self-reports significantly differed across schools on hours studied during exam weeks, textbook helpfulness, importance of lecture and class activities, quality and importance of course notes, and credit load. University students reported higher means on all of these, followed by 2-year and then technical college students. Students significantly differed on hours worked per week and current course grade, with technical college students having the highest means, followed by 2-year and then university students. There were a number of significant intercorrelations among the variables, some differing by institutional type. These institutional differences suggest that IP instructors may wish to consider these differences as they prepare to teach this course.

Quality and Cost Matter: Students’ Perceptions of Open versus Non-Open Texts through a Single-Blind Review

Although prior research has examined student perceptions of open materials, research investigating students’ perceptions of open versus copyright-restricted textbooks through a direct, experimental approach is lacking. To better understand how students perceive open textbooks outside the context of the classroom, we examined students’ perceptions of unfamiliar open and non-open (copyright-restricted) psychology textbooks. Forty-four introductory psychology students reviewed chapters from two open textbooks and two traditional/copyrightrestricted textbooks and then ranked the textbooks from most to least favourite. Students rated each chapter on several quality measures, including layout structure, visual appeal, ease of reading, and instructional features. Next, bibliographical information and cost were revealed, and students re-ranked the textbooks accordingly. Before knowing the bibliographic information and cost, students were more likely to prefer the two traditional textbooks. There after, they were more likely to select the open texts. Students often referred to textbook price as a determining factor for their change.

Putting evidence‐based claims to the test: A multi‐site classroom study of retrieval practice and spaced practice

SummaryRetrieval practice and spacing out studying help increase learning. Introductory Psychology students at nine colleges/universities took quizzes with more (RP+) or less (RP−) retrieval practice and more (SP+) or less (SP−) spacing between quizzes. We compared (N = 351) scores on class exams and on a standardized test. We also measured key student variables (e.g., depth of processing). GPA predicted a significant portion of variance in exam scores, R2 = 0.05, F(1, 204) = 10.84, p = 0.001. We found a main effect for retrieval practice and a significant retrieval by spacing practice interaction, R2 = 0.28, F(3, 201) = 27.38, p < 0.001. Students using SP+, as well as those with SP− and RP−, scored higher than students using SP− and RP+. In practice, closer attention needs to be paid to quiz and exam content overlap and the duration within which repetition is used.

Facilitating Student Success: The Role of Open Educational Resources in Introductory Psychology Courses

Open Educational Resources (OER) remove barriers to access instructional material. In light of their increased availability and use, a body of research has emerged to examine the impact of OER on college student success. While many of these studies have broadly examined efficacy across a variety of disciplines, the current study specifically examined the impact of the type of textbook (commercial vs. OER) on course content mastery within an undergraduate sample of introductory psychology students ( N = 63) while controlling for instructor and student differences. Results indicated that there were no significant differences in content mastery between those students in introductory psychology courses who were assigned a traditional commercial textbook and those who were assigned an OER textbook. These results support that OER can be equally effective as traditional, commercial textbooks and have implications for course material selections that help ensure access for all students.

Using technology to promote classroom instruction: assessing incidences of on-task and off-task multitasking and learning

Media multitasking is a common artifact of the increasing presence of technologies in classrooms. However, research indicates learning decrements when students engage in inappropriate or “off-task” media multitasking during class time. This is a concern as many innovative teaching practices call for the use of technologies. The present study examined ‘on-task’ (using media technologies to support learning) and ‘off-task’ multitasking when students were required to use online demonstrations as part of a collaborative group work activity within three regular, live classroom sessions. In total, 107 introductory psychology students participated as part of their regular classroom instruction. Both survey measures and direct observation indicated that students engaged in both on-task and off-task multitasking during the online and face-to-face group work components. Fewer students reported going off-task than expected. The proportion of students engaging in multitasking increased over time from the first to third demonstrations. Interestingly, perceived relevance of the online demonstrations predicted on-task behaviors. Overall, outcomes suggested that employing relevant online activities as part of ongoing instruction fostered more on-task behaviours and were perceived to be relevant learning tools. Implications for instruction are discussed.

Using Pseudoscience to Improve Introductory Psychology Students’ Information Literacy

We developed an assignment that required introductory psychology students to read and evaluate the quality of several sources of information about the causal link between vaccines and autism. To evaluate the effects of this assignment, students in several different introductory courses completed a pretest and posttest in which they evaluated the quality of information from a website promoting a pseudoscientific therapy. Students who completed the assignment decreased their ratings of the quality of the information from the website (from pretest to posttest), were better able to identify specific problems with the information, and were less likely to recommend the therapy to a friend. Students who did not complete the assignment exhibited no changes in the dependent measures.

A phenomenological study of reflective awareness in dreams: Characteristics of attention, memory, and anticipation

The objective of this study was to (1) document the diverse forms of cognition and attention that occur during dreaming and (2) articulate the qualitatively different profiles of the forms of cognition and attention that constitute classes or categories of reflective awareness during dreaming. Seventy introductory psychology students (68.1% females, 31.9% males, mean age = 19.8 years, SD age = 2.5 years) participated for partial course credit. Participants were asked to describe the dream that had most significantly influenced their thoughts and feelings after awakening during the preceding three months. Then, participants were asked to respond to a series of open-ended questions that captured the diverse forms of the cognitive and perceptual (including attentional and intentional) components of reflective awareness within the dream. Finally, participants were asked to complete a Dream Reflective Awareness Questionnaire regarding numerous aspects of reflective awareness during their dreams. The results revealed five clusters of dream reflective awareness, in terms of qualitatively different combinations of attention, memory, and anticipation during dreaming. It was also found that the relationships between two patterns of dream reflective awareness (i.e., depersonalization, dual perspectives) and certain attentional and cognitive categories in dreams were significant. Potential explanations for these phenomena were discussed.

Sweat So You Don’t Forget: Exercise Breaks During a University Lecture Increase On-Task Attention and Learning

We examined the impact of taking exercise breaks, non-exercise breaks, or no breaks on learning among first year Introductory Psychology students. Three 5-minute breaks were equally distributed throughout a 50-minute computer-based video lecture. The exercise breaks group performed a series of callisthenic exercises; the non-exercise breaks group played a computer game; the no breaks group watched the lecture without breaks. Mind-wandering questions measured attention during the lecture. Exercise breaks promoted attention throughout the lecture compared to no breaks and non-exercise breaks, and resulted in superior learning when assessed on immediate and delayed tests. The exercise breaks group also endorsed higher ratings for narrator clarity and perceived understanding than the other two groups. This is the first study to show that exercise breaks promote attention during lecture and improve learning in university students.

Reflections versus Extended Quizzes: Which is Better for Student Learning and Self-Regulation?

Both quizzes and reflections have been found to benefit student learning, but have been typically compared to passive or superficial controls. The purpose of this quasi-experiment is to test the relative effectiveness of brief quizzes followed by reflections compared to longer quizzes. Participants (N = 218) were introductory psychology students enrolled in two different courses, one in which students engaged in weekly brief quizzes and reflections and a second in which students engaged in longer quizzes. Results indicated that the two conditions were similar in effectiveness in terms of learning and self-reports of self-regulation.

Degree of handedness: A unique individual differences factor for predicting and understanding hindsight bias

Hindsight bias is a pervasive error in judgment and decision making. Thus, predicting when and why it occurs is an important task. The present study was designed to directly compare two methods that elicit potentially different kinds of hindsight bias and to relate the magnitude of the bias to degree of handedness, a neurologically-related individual difference variable associated with differences in both memory performance and anchoring. 160 introductory psychology students were given 64 general knowledge questions, half under “memory instructions” and the other half under “hypothetical instructions”. Results indicated that individuals showed greater hindsight bias under hypothetical than memory instructions, replicating previous research. They also showed that consistent right-handers are relatively more affected under memory instructions, while inconsistent-handers are relatively more affected under hypothetical instructions. In sum, the current study demonstrates that two kinds of hindsight bias exist, and the kind that emerges depends on both the person and situational context. The findings also suggest that different mechanisms may be involved, these mechanisms may have neurological underpinnings, and a multicomponent model of hindsight bias may be best for future theorizing.

Student perceptions of immediate feedback testing in student centered chemistry classes

Feedback is an important aspect of the learning process. The immediate feedback assessment technique (IF-AT®) form allows students to receive feedback on their answers during a testing event. Studies with introductory psychology students supported both perceived and real student learning gains when this form was used with testing. Knowing that negative student perceptions of innovative classroom techniques can create roadblocks, this research focused on gathering student responses to using IF-AT® forms for testing in general chemistry 1 and organic chemistry 2 classes at several institutions. Students’ perceptions on using the IF-AT® forms and how it influenced their thinking were gathered from a 16-item survey. The results of the student surveys are detailed and implementation strategies for using IF-AT® forms for chemistry testing are also outlined in this article.

Teaching Metacognition Experientially

We investigated the effects of using experiential learning and direct instruction to teach metacognitive theory and to determine whether instructional type differentially affected higher vs. lower level learning. We randomly assigned 87 introductory psychology students to either experiential learning or direct instruction conditions. We pretested participant’s knowledge of metacognitive theory, and then participants received either experiential or direct instruction, after which they completed a posttest of knowledge of metacognitive theory. After covarying prior knowledge, data suggested that experiential learning may be more effective than direct instruction for teaching metacognitive theory, particularly for higher level recall and recognition assessments. Our results suggest that when taught using experiential learning, students may process information at a deeper level and recall more information because they may have related new information to their past experiences, engaged in the course material, and may have increased self-efficacy for the learned material.

Bye-bye intro: A proposal for transforming introductory psychology.

Like most other college and university students, most introductory psychology students—especially nonmajors—tend to forget the specifics of what they learned surprisingly soon after the course ends. Further, the typical introduction to psychology course does surprisingly little to permanently alter