Intrinsically Conducting Polymers Research Articles

Water-soluble N-methylpolypyrrole nanoparticles as a highly efficient eco-friendly corrosion inhibitor for carbon steel in 3.5 wt% NaCl solution

Metal corrosion is a significant problem in industrial units that can disrupt operations and increase costs. A corrosion inhibitor (CI) is an effective solution to this issue. Organic compounds are suitable and efficient CIs for carbon steel (CS) against corrosion. Among them, intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) are gaining traction in numerous industries due to their eco-friendliness, low cost, high stability, and simple production process. One of the major obstacles associated with employing ICPs as CI is their limited solubility in aqueous media. The present study aimed to synthesize water-soluble N-methylpolypyrrole (NmPPy) nanoparticles through a facile, rapid, and cost-effective approach. The successful synthesis of the NmPPy nanoparticles has been confirmed through characterization using scanning electron microscopic (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and UV–vis spectra. The effectiveness of NmPPy nanoparticles in protecting CS against corrosion in a 3.5 wt% NaCl solution with varying concentrations at ambient temperature was evaluated using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and potentiodynamic polarization (PDP) measurements. The findings from the study indicate that the NmPPy nanoparticles exhibit a noteworthy corrosion protection capacity for CS. At a concentration of 300 mg L−1, the NmPPy acted as a mixed-type inhibitor and yielded around 95% inhibition efficiency. Moreover, the adsorption behavior of the particles followed the Langmuir isotherm model with chemical adsorption. Surface morphology analysis techniques, including scanning Kelvin probe (SKP), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), have confirmed the development of a protective film on the CS. The analysis indicates that the CS has a smooth surface, and the NmPPy nanoparticles exhibit high inhibition efficiency. Therefore, the water-soluble NmPPy nanoparticles effectively inhibit CS corrosion in NaCl solution. They hold immense promise for the future development of advanced protective materials.

Flexible and multi-material intrinsically conductive polymer devices fabricated via DLP and DIW additive manufacturing techniques

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to explore the synthesis of novel conductive photo-resins to produce flexible conducting composites for use in additive manufacturing. By using direct ink writing (DIW) additive manufacturing, this study aims to explore the fabrication of multimaterial devices with conductive and insulating components. Using digital light processing (DLP) additive manufacturing, this study aims to fabricate detailed objects with higher resolution than material extrusion 3D printing systems.Design/methodology/approachIn this paper, several photocurable conducting resins were prepared for DIW and DLP additive manufacturing. These resins were then cured using 405 nm near UV light to create intrinsically conductive polymer (ICP) composites. The electrochemical properties of these composites were analysed, and the effect of co-monomer choice and crosslinking density was determined. These results determined a suitable resin for subsequent additive manufacture using DIW and DLP. These 3D printing techniques were used to develop flexible conducting devices of submillimetre resolution that were fabricated with unmodified, commercially available 3D printers.FindingsCyclic voltammetry and volume conductivity analysis of the conducting resins determined the most conductive resin formula for 3D printing. Conductive devices were fabricated using the two 3D printing techniques. A multimaterial soft conducting device was fabricated using DIW, and each conducting component was insulated from its neighbours. DLP was used to fabricate a soft conducting device with good XY resolution with a minimum feature size of 0.2 mm. All devices were prepared in unmodified commercially available 3D printers.Practical implicationsThese findings have value in the development of soft robotics, artificial muscles and wearable sensors. In addition, this work highlights techniques for DIW and DLP additive manufacturing.Originality/valueSeveral original conducting resin formulae were developed for use in two 3D printing systems. The resulting 3D-printed composites are soft and flexible while maintaining their conductive properties. These findings are of value to both polymer chemists and to the field of additive manufacturing.

Bioelectronic Applications of Intrinsically Conductive Polymers

AbstractSince the discovery of conducting polyacetylene in the 1970s, intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) have attracted great attention because of their interesting structure, properties, and applications. Notably different from conventional conductors such as metals and doped semiconductors, ICPs have high mechanical flexibility and are light weight. In addition, their properties can be easily tuned by controlling the doping level, modifying the chemical structure, or forming composites with organic or inorganic materials. Their application in bioelectronics is particularly interesting because they have good biocompatibility and good mechanical matching with biological tissues. In this article, the methods to increase the mechanical stretchability of ICPs are first reviewed because high stretchability is often required for bioelectronic applications while pristine ICPs generally have limited stretchability. The application of ICPs as stretchable electrodes for epidermal biopotential detection and neural interfaces is discussed. Then, the employment of ICPs as the electrodes or sensing material of mechanical sensors is reviewed. They also have important application in controllable drug delivery. Last, their applications in the wearable energy harvesting and storage devices including thermoelectric generators and supercapacitors are also covered.

PROPERTIES OF NANOSTRUCTURED COMPOSITES OF POLY(VINYLIDENE FLUORIDE) WITH DOPED POLY(3-METHYLTHIOPHENE)

The combination of properties of intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) and functional nanostructured template materials opens up prospects for their use in various fields, ranging from bioelectronics to sensors and energy conversion. Successful combinations solve one of the important drawbacks of many ICPs, created by their insolubility and infusibility, and help to achieve their full potential in thermally processable materials. When developing such hybrid materials, it is necessary to take into account the sensitivity of ICP properties to interphase interactions due to extended π-conjugation in these polymers. However, this aspect of ICP-based nanocomposites has not been sufficiently studied yet. In this paper we investigate the effect of template submicron poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) particles and the nature of the dopant on properties of poly(3-methylthiophene) (P3MT) precipitated as the shell at the PVDF core surface in the course of the 3MT oxidative polymerization. For this purpose, we compare the properties of P3MT phase of the composites with the properties of the neat P3MT doped with dodecylbenzenesulfonate (DBS), perfluorooctanoate (PFO) and chloride anions. In the formed composite core-shell particles the P3MT is in the form of asymmetric nanoparticles which are localized almost exclusively at the surface of PVDF particles. According to the conjugation length, neat polymers form the following series: P3MT-Cl > P3MT-DBS > P3MT-PFO as evidenced by the IR spectral analysis. In their composites the conjugation length of P3MT doped with Cl- does not change noticeably, while for the DBS and PFO anions cases it increases and for the DBS case it exceeds that of Cl- case. X-ray phase analysis showed an increase in the degree of crystallinity of P3MT-Cl and P3MT-DBS phases in the composition of composites by 1.4 and 1.3 times relative to the corresponding values for the neat doped P3MTs. Such an increase can be caused by the influence of the local electric field of the dipoles of the electroactive part of the crystalline phase of PVDF (β- and γ-phase) on the spatial arrangement of charged P3MT macromolecules formed on the surface of PVDF. Thermogravimetric studies show an increase in the thermal stability of the doped P3MT phase of nanocomposites while conductivity measurements reveal a significant effect of the nature of the dopant anion.

“Electronic nose”-type chemosensory systems for detection of gaseous poisonous substances

The work is devoted to a study of the detection sensitivity and selectivity of a series of simulants of gaseous poisonous substances (PS). Two different sensor types were used, namely: 1) a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM), exhibiting a shift of the resonant frequency of quartz plates coated with calixarene thin layers, and 2) chemoresistive electrodes coated with layers of nanocomposites of intrinsically conducting polymers (ICP) changing their conductance under the influence of adsorbed gas molecules. The concentration of the analyzed volatile compounds varied within the range of 10 to 1000 ppm. The detection threshold ranged from 10 to 100 ppm depending on the analyzed substance for both transducer types. The response time was from 10 to 20 s for the QCM sensors and up to 1 minute for the ICP based sensors. The possibility of qualitative identification of poisonous substances in a wide concentration range by means of statistical analysis of the sensor array data is demonstrated.

Emerging Applications of Versatile Polyaniline-Based Polymers in the Food Industry

Intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) have been widely studied in various applications, such as sensors, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and semiconductors. Specifically, polyaniline (PANI) stands out in food industry applications due to its advantageous reversible redox properties, electrical conductivity, and simple modification. The rising concerns about food safety and security have encouraged the development of PANI as an antioxidant, antimicrobial agent, food freshness indicator, and electronic nose. At the same time, it plays an important role in food safety control to ensure the quality of food. This study reviews the emerging applications of PANI in the food industry. It has been found that the versatile applications of PANI allow the advancement of modern active and intelligent food packaging and better food quality monitoring systems.

Atmospheric pressure plasma jet treatment of PLA/PAni solutions: Enhanced morphology, improved yield of electrospun nanofibers and concomitant doping behaviour

To obtain uniform and bead-free nanofibers by means of electrospinning is sometimes very challenging, especially for polymers with low solubility, such as for example the intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs). Recently, atmospheric pressure plasma jet (APPJ) treatment to pre-electrospinning polymer solutions has been found to effectively enhance the electrospinnability of a single polymer type. Here, such an APPJ treatment has been applied for the first time to a blended polymeric solution consisting of polylactic acid (PLA) and polyaniline emeraldine base (PAni EB) as well as its emeraldine salt (ES) form doped by camphorsulfonic acid (CSA). The plasma-induced physical changes of the solutions including pH, conductivity, viscosity and surface tension have been investigated and correlated with the ensuing physicochemical properties of the electrospun nanofibers. To do so, next to the liquid-based characterizations, the nanofibers have been examined by means of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), water contact angle (WCA) goniometry and uniaxial tensile testing. Results revealed that the pre-electrospinning plasma modification step resulted in a remarkably enhanced nanofiber morphology, deposition yield and mechanical performance of the electrospun nanofibers. Moreover, concomitant doping of PAni EB to PAni ES, as an unexpected side behaviour generated during the plasma treatment without the addition of any protonic acid, was found and further carefully investigated using ultraviolet/visible (UV–Vis) spectrometry. The findings obtained in this work thus enlarge the application range of pre-electrospinning APPJ treatment from single to blended polymeric solutions. Moreover, the recent pioneering discovery revealing the pre-electrospinning APPJ treatment role in enhancing electrospinning has surpassed the sole connotation of improved fiber morphology as new interesting effects are discerned in this study: boosted nanofiber deposition yield and doping capabilities.

Durable scalable 3D SLA-printed cuff electrodes with high performance carbon + PEDOT:PSS-based contacts.

The stimulation and recording performance of implanted neural interfaces are functions of the physical and electrical characteristics of the neural interface, its electrode material and structure. Therefore, rapid optimization of such characteristics is becoming critical in most clinical and research studies. This paper describes the development of an upgraded 3D printed cuff electrode shell design containing a novel intrinsically conductive polymer (ICP) for stimulation and recording of peripheral nerve fibers. A 3D stereolithography (SLA) printer was used to print a scalable, custom designed, C-cuff electrode and I-beam closure for accurate, rapid implementation. A novel contact consisting of a percolated carbon graphite base electrodeposited with an intrinsically conductive polymer (ICP), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) produced a PEDOT:PSS + carbon black (CB) matrix that was used to form the electrochemical interface on the structure. Prototype device performance was tested both in-vitro and in-vivo for electrical chemical capacity, electrochemical interfacial impedance, surgical handling, and implantability. The in-vivo work was performed on the sciatic nerve of 25 anesthetized Sprague Dawley rats to demonstrate recording and stimulating ability. Prototypes of different spatial geometries and number of contacts (bipolar, tripolar, and tetrapolar) were designed. The design was successfully printed with inner diameters down to 500 μm. Standard bipolar and tripolar cuffs, with a 1.3 mm inner diameter (ID), 0.5 mm contact width, 1.0 mm pitch, and a 1.5 mm end distance were used for the functional tests. This geometry was appropriate for placement on the rat sciatic nerve and enabled in-vivo testing in anesthetized rats. The contacts on the standard bipolar electrode had an area of 2.1 × 10-2 cm2 . Cyclic voltammetry on ICP coated and uncoated graphite contacts showed that the ICP increased the average charge storage capacity (CSC) by a factor of 30. The corresponding impedance at 1Hz was slightly above 1 kΩ, a 99.99% decrease from 100 kΩ in the uncoated state. The statistical comparison of the pre- versus post-stimulation impedance measurements were not significantly different (p-value > 0.05). The new cuff electrode enables rapid development of cost-effective functional stimulation devices targeting nerve bundles less than 1.0 mm in diameter. This allows for recording and modulation of a low-frequency current targeted within the peripheral nervous system.

Impact of Low-Pressure Plasma Treatment of Wool Fabric for Dyeing with PEDOT: PSS.

This study presents the effect of non-thermal plasma modification on the changes of surface morphology, color characteristics and electrical conductivity of wool fabric dyed with intrinsically conductive polymer (ICP) poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT: PSS). The wool fabric was treated with an aqueous dispersion of PEDOT: PSS, Clevios F ET, providing electrically conductive properties to textiles. The wool fabric, containing basic groups of amines (NH2), was pre-activated with low-pressure plasma of non-polymer forming nitrogen (N2) gas before exhaust dyeing with PEDOT: PSS at 90 °C was applied. This treatment imparted hydrophilicity, reduced felting, increased adhesion, improved dye ability and ensured that more PEDOT: PSS negatively charged sulfonate counter ions would be electrostatically bounded with the cationic protonated amine groups of the wool fiber. Initially, before (N2) plasma treatment and after fabrics were evaluated according to the test method for aqueous liquid repellency, the surface morphology of the plasma-modified and -unmodified wool dyed fabric was observed with scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The functional groups introduced onto the surface after N2 gas plasma treatment of wool fabric were characterized by X-ray photoelectron and FTIR-ATR spectroscopy. The results of color difference measurements show that N2 gas plasma treatments provide more intense color on Clevios F ET dyed wool fabric and retain its electrical conductivity.

Last developments in polymers for wearable energy storage devices

Last developments in polymers for wearable energy storage devices

Conducting polymers-based nanocomposites: Innovative materials for waste water treatment and energy storage

Over the years, the concept of intrinsically conducting polymers (ICP) endures to intrigue the scientific community owing to its unique properties. ICP is an organic macromolecule that integrates both the conventional polymers and metal properties into one system. The current research article discusses the simplistic methodology for the synthesis of metal oxide doped polyaniline (PANI) nanocomposites via in-situ oxidative polymerization procedure for photocatalysis and supercapacitor application. The synthesised materials are usually characterised by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and BET analysis. The photocatalytic performance of the nanocomposites is usually evaluated by monitoring the degradation of model dyes under UV irradiations whereas the supercapacitor performance is evaluated by fabricating electrodes to analyse the electrochemical efficiencies. The reported literature indicates that the conducting polymers doped nanocomposites revealed better photocatalytic and capacitance efficiencies as compared to bare PANI. Enhanced photocatalytic and electroanalytical performance, simple method for synthesis and cheaper cost of production made these materials to be exploited as potential candidates for efficient energy storage and waste water treatment.

Conducting Polymeric Composites Based on Intrinsically Conducting Polymers as Electromagnetic Interference Shielding/Microwave Absorbing Materials—A Review

The development of sophisticated telecommunication equipment and other electro-electronic devices resulted in a kind of electromagnetic pollution that affects the performance of other equipment as well as the health of human beings. Intrinsically conducting polymers (ICP), mainly polyaniline and polypyrrole, have been considered as promising candidates for applications in efficient electromagnetic interference shielding (EMI) due to their ease of preparation, light weight, good conductivity and corrosion resistance. One of the important advantages of these materials is the capability to interact with the EM radiation through both absorption and reflection mechanisms thus enlarging the field of application. In this context, this review article describes a recent overview of the existing methods to produce intrinsically conducting polymers and their blends for electromagnetic shielding application. Additionally, it highlights the relationship between preparation methods reported in the literature with the structure and properties, such as electrical conductivity, electromagnetic shielding effectiveness (EMI SE), complex permittivity and permeability of these materials. Furthermore, a brief theory related to the electromagnetic mechanism and techniques for measuring the microwave absorbing properties are also discussed.

Three-Dimensional Printable Conductive Semi-Interpenetrating Polymer Network Hydrogel for Neural Tissue Applications.

Intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) are widely used to fabricate biomaterials; their application in neural tissue engineering, however, is severely limited because of their hydrophobicity and insufficient mechanical properties. For these reasons, soft conductive polymer hydrogels (CPHs) are recently developed, resulting in a water-based system with tissue-like mechanical, biological, and electrical properties. The strategy of incorporating ICPs as a conductive component into CPHs is recently explored by synthesizing the hydrogel around ICP chains, thus forming a semi-interpenetrating polymer network (semi-IPN). In this work, a novel conductive semi-IPN hydrogel is designed and synthesized. The hybrid hydrogel is based on a poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-N-isopropylmethacrylamide) hydrogel where polythiophene is introduced as an ICP to provide the system with good electrical properties. The fabrication of the hybrid hydrogel in an aqueous medium is made possible by modifying and synthesizing the monomers of polythiophene to ensure water solubility. The morphological, chemical, thermal, electrical, electrochemical, and mechanical properties of semi-IPNs were fully investigated. Additionally, the biological response of neural progenitor cells and mesenchymal stem cells in contact with the conductive semi-IPN was evaluated in terms of neural differentiation and proliferation. Lastly, the potential of the hydrogel solution as a 3D printing ink was evaluated through the 3D laser printing method. The presented results revealed that the proposed 3D printable conductive semi-IPN system is a good candidate as a scaffold for neural tissue applications.

Flexible Nanogenerator from Electrospun PVDF-Polycarbazole Nanofiber Membranes for Human Motion Energy-Harvesting Device Applications.

Poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVDF) has become the polymer matrix of choice for fabrication of wearable electronics and physiological monitoring devices. Despite possessing a high piezoelectric constant, additives are required to increase the charge transfer from PVDF matrix to connected signal readout units. Many of these additives also stabilize the β-phase of PVDF, which is associated with highest piezoelectric coefficients. However, most of the additives used are often brittle ceramic-phase materials resulting in decreased flexibility of the devices and offsetting the gain in β-phase content. Intrinsically conducting polymers (ICP), on the other hand, are ideal candidates to improve the device-related properties of PVDF, due to their higher flexibility than ceramic fillers as well as ability to form conducting network in PVDF membranes. This work reports the performance and device feasibility of PVDF-polycarbazole (PCZ) electrospun nanofiber membranes. A higher β-phase was observed by FTIR spectroscopy in PVDF/PCZ compared to other PVDF phases. Moreover, a higher open-circuit potential was recorded over PVDF/polyaniline composites, which were studied for comparison. The addition of PCZ reduced the flexibility of pure PVDF nanofibers by 20% only. Besides, the work investigated the bacterial biofouling and cell compatibility of the matrix, as essential properties to examine any putative medical device application. PVDF/PCZ membranes were then used to develop a nanogenerator, which was capable of instantly lighting an entire LED array employing the rectified output power, and charged up a 2.2 μF capacitors using a bridge rectifier through a vertical compressive force applied periodically. Finally, the nanogenerator demonstrated electrical energy harvesting from movements of various parts of the human body, such as toe and heel movement and wrist bending. In conclusion, PCZ can be considered as an attractive, biocompatible, and anti-biofouling conducting polymer for electrical actuation and flexible electronic device applications.

Polycarbazole and its derivatives: progress, synthesis, and applications

Polycarbazole and its derivatives encompass nitrogen-containing aromatic heterocyclic conducting polymers having excellent optoelectronic properties, high charge carrier mobility, and excellent morphological stability, which make them potential candidates in the field of nanodevices, rechargeable batteries and electrochemical transistors. Engrossingly, carbazole moieties can be electropolymerized in two different methods resulting in the formation of poly(2,7-carbazole)s or poly(3,6-carbazole)s derivatives because the 2,7 and 3,6 positions are more active than the others. The fundamental difference between these two polymers is in the bandgap energies and effectual conjugation length. Poly(2,7-carbazole) exhibits more extended conjugation length because of the presence of lower bandgap energy values and the presence of poly para phenylene (PPP) like structure. The pysico-chemical characteristics of the polymers, revamped by employing substituents at various positions and synthetic methods, leading to the generation of highly efficient materials for a wide range of optoelectronic applications. At present, much intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) like polythiophene (PT), poly (p-phenylene) (PPP), polypyrrole (PPY), and polyaniline (PANI) have been diligently investigated. Among these carbazole units are more advantageous because of their intriguing properties includes the presence of bridged biphenyl unit providing a material with a lower bandgap, the inexpensive raw material (9H-carbazole), and the natural functionalizing ability of nitrogen atom. The predominant objective of this review is to effectuate a comprehensive study of carbazole based conducting polymers, its derivatives, applications, and various synthesis methods.

The Effect of Dopant Type on The Morphology and Electrical Properties of Hollow Polyester Fabric

Intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) have been intensively the subject of research since these polymers have superlative electrical and thermophysical properties. Due to the low hydrogen content and aromatic structure, they show perfect chemical, thermal, and oxidative stability and are practically insoluble in all common solvents. Also these polymers are latently electrical conducting materials, especially when doped. Polypyrole (PPy) is a very promising conducting polymer. It can be in easy way processes and has many interesting electrical properties. Also ıt is chemically and thermally stable. Like many other fully aromatic polymers, PPy is an electrical insulator, however, when oxidized it becomes an electrical conductor.The conductivity of PPy strongly consists in the preparation technique, and on the polymer additives and can be increased by about two orders of magnitude. In this study, electrically conductive hollow fabrics were prepared via ın situ chemical polymerization method and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electrical properties of conductive hollow fabrics were invesigated.

Thin Functional Polymer Films by Electropolymerization.

Intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) have been widely utilized in organic electronics, actuators, electrochromic devices, and sensors. Many potential applications demand the formation of thin polymer films, which can be generated by electrochemical polymerization. Electrochemical methods are quite powerful and versatile and can be utilized for investigation of ICPs, both for educational purposes and materials chemistry research. In this study, we show that potentiodynamic and potentiostatic techniques can be utilized for generating and characterizing thin polymer films under the context of educational chemistry research and state-of-the-art polymer research. First, two well-known bifunctional monomers (with only two linking sites)—aniline and bithiophene—and their respective ICPs—polyaniline (PANI) and polybithiophene (PBTh)—were electrochemically generated and characterized. Tests with simple electrochromic devices based on PANI and PBTh were carried out at different doping levels, where changes in the UV-VIS absorption spectra and color were ascribed to changes in the polymer structures. These experiments may attract students’ interest in the electrochemical polymerization of ICPs as doping/dedoping processes can be easily understood from observable color changes to the naked eye, as shown for the two polymers. Second, two new carbazole-based multifunctional monomers (with three or more linking sites)—tris(4-(carbazol-9-yl)phenyl)silanol (TPTCzSiOH) and tris(3,5-di(carbazol-9-yl)phenyl)silanol (TPHxCzSiOH)—were synthesized to produce thin films of cross-linked polymer networks by electropolymerization. These thin polymer films were characterized by electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) experiments and nitrogen sorption, and the results showed a microporous nature with high specific surface areas up to 930 m2g−1. PTPHxCzSiOH-modified glassy carbon electrodes showed an enhanced electrochemical response to nitrobenzene as prototypical nitroaromatic compound compared to unmodified glassy carbon electrodes.

Advances in Conducting, Biodegradable and Biocompatible Copolymers for Biomedical Applications

Electroactive biomaterials are a new generation of “smart” biomaterials based on intrinsically conducting polymers (ICP). Among them, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), polypyrrole (PPy) and polyaniline (PANI) are well known conducting polymers that present excellent electrical and optical properties emerging as main candidates for potential biomedical applications. Additionally, the biodegradability of biomaterials is very useful and desirable. In this context, biodegradable polymers based on polyesters, such as poly(D,L-lactic acid) (PDLLA), polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly(glycolic acid) (PGA) appear to be promising candidates because of their good biocompatibility and, as a consequence, they have been attracting attention as sustainable alternatives for applications in medicine. Weak molecular interaction with cells, biocompatibility, biodegradability, mechanics and topography are some of the main challenges for the use of conducting polymers as biomaterials. In order to improve their own biocompatibility, the main strategies are whether by doping with specific counter ions (biodopants) or chemically modifying the monomers with different molecules. Although conventional ICPs still present low or none biodegradability, there are relatively few examples of biodegradable electroactive polymers in the literature. Recently, novel approaches have been applied to solve the problem of lack of biodegradability of conducting polymers, mainly through (1) synthesis of a modified electroactive oligomers connected via degradable ester linkages creating block copolymers and (2) synthesis of modified electroactive and biodegradable macromonomers based on polyesters used in a second step copolymerization with conductive monomers. This mini-review focuses on developing trends, challenges and summarizes the recent advances on synthesis of conducting, biodegradable and biocompatible copolymers in terms of optimizing the chemical properties to improved response towards different cells, aiming biomedical applications.

Progress in the Development of Intrinsically Conducting Polymer Composites as Biosensors.

Biosensors are analytical devices which find extensive applications in fields such as the food industry, defense sector, environmental monitoring, and in clinical diagnosis. Similarly, intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) and their composites have lured immense interest in bio‐sensing due to their various attributes like compatibility with biological molecules, efficient electron transfer upon biochemical reactions, loading of bio‐reagent, and immobilization of biomolecules. Further, they are proficient in sensing diverse biological species and compounds like glucose (detection limit ≈0.18 nm), DNA (≈10 pm), cholesterol (≈1 µm), aptamer (≈0.8 pm), and also cancer cells (≈5 pm mL−1) making them a potential candidate for biological sensing functions. ICPs and their composites have been extensively exploited by researchers in the field of biosensors owing to these peculiarities; however, no consolidated literature on the usage of conducting polymer composites for biosensing functions is available. This review extensively elucidates on ICP composites and doped conjugated polymers for biosensing functions of copious biological species. In addition, a brief overview is provided on various forms of biosensors, their sensing mechanisms, and various methods of immobilizing biological species along with the life cycle assessment of biosensors for various biosensing applications, and their cost analysis.

Conducting Polymers, Hydrogels and Their Composites: Preparation, Properties and Bioapplications.

This review is focused on current state-of-the-art research on electroactive-based materials and their synthesis, as well as their physicochemical and biological properties. Special attention is paid to pristine intrinsically conducting polymers (ICPs) and their composites with other organic and inorganic components, well-defined micro- and nanostructures, and enhanced surface areas compared with those of conventionally prepared ICPs. Hydrogels, due to their defined porous structures and being filled with aqueous solution, offer the ability to increase the amount of immobilized chemical, biological or biochemical molecules. When other components are incorporated into ICPs, the materials form composites; in this particular case, they form conductive composites. The design and synthesis of conductive composites result in the inheritance of the advantages of each component and offer new features because of the synergistic effects between the components. The resulting structures of ICPs, conducting polymer hydrogels and their composites, as well as the unusual physicochemical properties, biocompatibility and multi-functionality of these materials, facilitate their bioapplications. The synergistic effects between constituents have made these materials particularly attractive as sensing elements for biological agents, and they also enable the immobilization of bioreceptors such as enzymes, antigen-antibodies, and nucleic acids onto their surfaces for the detection of an array of biological agents. Currently, these materials have unlimited applicability in biomedicine. In this review, we have limited discussion to three areas in which it seems that the use of ICPs and materials, including their different forms, are particularly interesting, namely, biosensors, delivery of drugs and tissue engineering.