Interstitial Liquid Research Articles

Epoxy polymers. II. Macrostructure

AbstractA variety of measurements indicate that thermosetting epoxy polymers contain closely packed floccules and an interstitial liquid similar to the starting materials. The fioccules are thought to be of colloidal origin and appear to be ordered with respect to each other in a three‐dimensional array.

Certain Wettability Effects on Electrical Resistivity in Porous Media

ABSTRACT A laboratory study was made on the relation of wettability and wetting equilibrium to electrical resistivity, particularly under dynamic conditions. Teflon cores and synthetic fluids as well as reservoir cores and fluids wereused. Resistivities were measured by a four-electrode system. Under static conditions and with the wetting equilibrium prevailing, exponents as high as 9 were calculated from Archie's Equation when the interstitial conductive liquid was the non-wetting phase. When it was the wetting phase, saturation exponents ranged from 2 to 3 for the same core. This means that in laboratory measurements of Archie's saturation exponents on reservoir cores, the corewettability must represent the wettability of the reservoir. Otherwise, thecalculated connate water saturations will be in error. Under dynamic conditions, wetting equilibrium prevails only for very low displacement rates. At high flow rates the rate has an important bearing on the measured resistivity, indicating non-equilibrium fluid distribution in some experiments, the porous medium was saturated with the non-wetting liquid first. It was shown that, in these tests, the wetting equilibrium is either notobtained at all or it is obtained extremely slowly. These laboratory resultsare explained in terms of fluid distribution in porous media. A qualitative discussion is given on the implications of this work in electrical loginterpretation and the recovery of crude oil by chemical waterfloods. INTRODUCTION HYDROCARBON-BEARING FORMATIONS are generally identified through themeasurement and interpretation of their electrical properties by well logging. The empirical equation used in the estimation of the hydrocarbon saturations from resistivity data is: {See equation in full paper}, In this equation, S, is connate water saturation, R. is the resistivity ofthe 100 per cent water-saturated formation, Rt is the resistivity of the formation containing both water and hydrocarbon, and n is the saturation exponent. The true resistivity, R, of the un-invade zone and R. are obtained from the logs; n is found from laboratory measurements on reservoir cores. Implicit in the above approach are the assumptions that:the saturation-resistivity relationship is unique,laboratory-derived n valuesapply to the reservoirn is constant for a given porous medium andall of the water contributes to the flow of the electric current. Numerous studies on the electrical resistivities of cores partly saturated with sodium chloride solution have shown that the above assumptions are notnecessarily invalid. For the same saturations, the resistivity of cores hasbeen found to vary significantly with wetting conditions, clay content, textureand salinity. To find the effect of wettability on resistivity, some studieshave been performed on natural or synthetic cores in which the wettability waschanged through a chemical reaction, i.e. hot solvent extraction, oxidation or coating the surfaces with a chemical. There are some complicating factors insuch an approach; namely, the resulting core wettability is not uniform, and cannot be described or measured, and exchangeable ions from natural mineral scan change the resistivity of the electrolyte filling the pores. Also, the porosity of the core, particularly the effective porosity, can change.

Absorption and transferring of the cochlear fluids.

The perilymph is absorbed in the loose connective tissue of the modio-lum, the endolymph is absorbed in the planum limbi and the interstitial liquid of the organ of Corti in the inner spiral sulcus. The basin of the vein of the aqueduct of the cochlea in a fetal phase transfers almost only perilymph. When fully developed, many veins of the above-said basin are obliterated and the remaining ones transfer more blood than perilymph. From the interstitial spaces of the limbus the endolymph flows into the capillaries towards the inner auditory veins and the interstitial liquid of the organ of Corti flows towards the same veins by means of short lymphatic vessels.

A study of interstitial liquid flow in foam part III. Test of theory

AbstractThe theory for foam drainage and overflow recently proposed by the authors' group is tested with extensive experimental data gathered from foam fractionation columns and also from stationary foams at steady state. The experimental results support the theory.

Crystallization of tholeiitic basalt in Alae Lava Lake, Hawaii

The eruption of Kilauea Volcano August 21–23, 1963, left 600,000 cubic meters of basaltic lava in a lava lake as much as 15 meters deep in Alae pit crater. Field studies of the lake began August 27 and include repeated core drilling, measurements of temperature in the crust and melt, and precise level surveys of the lake surface. The last interstitial melt in the lake solidified late in September 1964; by mid August 1965 the maximum temperature was 690°C at a depth of 11.5 meters. Pumice air-quenched from about 1140°C contains only 5 percent crystals — clinopyroxene, cuhedral olivine (Fo 80), and a trace of plagioclase, (An 70). Drill cores taken from the zone of crystallization in the lake show that olivine continued crystallizing to about 1070°C; below that it reacts with the melt, becoming corroded and mantled by pyroxene and plagioclase. Below 1070°C, pyroxene and plagioclase crystallized at a constant ratio. Ilmenite first appeared at about 1070°C and was joined by magnetite at about 1050°C; both increased rapidly in abundance to 1000°C. Apatite first appeared as minute needles in interstitial glass at 1000°C. Both the abundance and index of refraction of glass quenched from melt decreased nearly linearly with falling temperature. At 1070°C the quenched lava contains about 65 percent dark-brown glass with an index of 1.61; at 980°C it contains about 8 percent colorless glass with an index of 1.49. Below 980°C, the percentage of glass remained constant. Progressive crystallization forced exsolution of gases from the melt fraction; these formed vesicles and angular pores, causing expansion of the crystallizing lava and lifting the surface of the central part of the lake an average of 19.5 cm. The solidified basalt underwent pneumatolitic alteration, including deposition of cristobalite at 800°C, reddish alteration of olivine at 700°C, tarnishing of ilmenite at 550°C, deposition of anhydrite at 250°C, and deposition of native sulfur at 100°C. Ferric-ferrous ratios suggest that oxidation with maximum intensity between 550°C and 610°C moved downward in the crust as it cooled; this was followed by reduction at a temperature of about 100°C. The crystallized basalt is a homogeneous fine-grained rock containing on the average 48.3 percent by volume intergranular pyroxene (augite > pigeonite), 34.2 percent plagioclase laths (An60 70), 7.9 percent interstitial glass, 6.9 percent opaques (ilmenite > magnetite), 2.7 percent olivine (Fo70 80), and a trace of apatite. Chemical analyses of 18 samples, ranging from initially quenched pumice to lava cored more than a year after the eruption from the center and from near the base of the lake, show little variation from silica-saturated tholeiitic basalt containing 50.4 percent SiO2, 2.4 percent Na2O, and 0.54 percent K2O. Apparently there was no significant crystal settling and no appreciable vapor-phase transport of these components during the year of crystallization. However, seven samples of interstitial liquid that had been filter-pressed into gash fractures and drill holes from partly crystalline mush near the base of the crust show large differences from the bulk composition of the solidified crust—lower MgO, CaO, and Al2O3; and higher total iron, TiO2, Na2O, K2O, P2O5, and F, and, in most samples, SiO2. The minor elements Ba, Ga, Li, Y, and Yb and possibly Cu tend to be enriched in the filter-pressed liquids, and Cr and possibly Ni tend to be depleted.

A study of interstitial liquid flow in foam. Part II. Experimental verification and observations

AbstractExperimental results obtained over a wide range of variables from three different foam fractionation columns support the theory developed in Part I.

A study of interstitial liquid flow in foam. Part I. Theoretical model and application to foam fractionation

AbstractA theoretical model for interstitial liquid flow in a stationary or moving foam was devised by relating the physical structure of the foam to the physical properties of the surfactant and the foam movement. This was accomplished through a differential momentum balance within a typical capillary (Plateau border) of noncircular cross section with finite surface viscosity at its boundaries. Velocity profiles were then calculated and integrated numerically for the randomly oriented capillaries so as to obtain the overall liquid flow through the foam in terms of the pertinent variables. Results are presented in a form suitable for estimating concentrations and flow rates of product and waste streams in foam fractionation.

Fractionation of elements in the pelitic hornfelses of the Cashel-Lough Wheelaun intrusion, Connemara, Eire

The fractionation of major and minor elements in the pelitic hornfelses of the Cashel-Lough Wheelaun basic and ultrabasic intrusion is examined in the light of the observed mineralogical changes. Comparison with trace element fractionation in silicate magmas shows excellent agreement, except in the cases of Ga: Al and Co:Ni. The available evidence favours the hypothesis of extensive fractional melting of the aureole rocks, with the bulk chemical changes taking place as a result of the extraction of the interstitial liquid. The absence of any additive metasomatism is suggested by the lack of change in ratios among the apparently enriched elements, e.g. Mg:Mg + Fe and the ratios of Cr, Ni, Vc and Co to Mg + Fe. The progressive losses of Si, Na and K from the pelites were accompanied by important losses of Ba, Rb, Li, La and Cs. Sc, Mn, Sr and Zr losses were small at lower, but more profound at higher temperatures of alteration. Cr, V, Co, Ga and Ni, like total Fe, Mg and Ti, were enriched roughly threefold in the more intensely altered rocks, although in the extreme stages (formation of emery rocks) there is evidence of removal of Mg, Ti and Ni, together with proportionally smaller amounts of Fe. The compositions of the successive fluid or liquid fractions are estimated, using Cr content as an indicator of the absolute decrease in total number of cations in the hornfelses. The envelope hornfelses first yielded a K-rich granitic liquid and, at slightly higher temperatures, a more normal granitic or granodioritic liquid. The liquid lost by the xenoliths to the enclosing magma was rich in Si and contained appreciable Mg, Ti, Fe, Mn, Ca and K.

Textural features of some contrasted igneous cumulates from South Greenland

Five particular occurrences of layered plutonic rocks within the south Greenland alkaline province are discussed. These five examples are of gabbro, anorthosite, syenite of larvikite-nordmarkite type, foyaite and eudialyte nepheline syenite, respectively. Each is thought to consist of cumulate rocks formed by bottom accumulation of the early mineral phases and the subsequent crystallization of the trapped interstitial liquid. The possible causes of banding and feldspar lamination are considered in each case. The presence or absence of feldspar lamination is used as one criterion for deciding whether the settling of the early (cumulus) phases occurred through moving or still magma. Magmatic flow during the accumulation of the cumulus mush was important in controlling the degree of packing within the latter and hence was influential in determining the ultimate bulk composition of the solidified rock.

Chlorine Logging in Cased Holes

Abstract A new chlorine logging tool, developed primarily for the detection of oil saturation behind casing, is described. The principle involved is the selective detection of gamma radiation from neutron capture in chlorine. The tool is relatively insensitive to porosity, responding mainly to the concentration of chlorine in the interstitial liquid rather than to the total chlorine content in the formation. A brief review of the fundamentals of chlorine logging is given. This includes a discussion of the partition of neutron captures in clean sand and limestone formations, and the spectra of gamma rays obtained. The effect of neutron capture in iron is shown to be important. Following a short description of the logging tool, the laboratory-determined response of the instrument in cased sandstone formations is presented. It is shown that better results can be obtained by logging in empty casing than in casing filled with oil, fresh water, or salt water. Effects of neutron capture in the casing, casing liquid, cement annulus and formation matrix are discussed. A method of interpreting the Chlorine log, based on the use of the response curves, is explained. This is illustrated with several field examples which also show comparisons of electrical and Chlorine logs. In Gulf Coast formations, the Chlorine log often bears a marked resemblance to the SP curve, and in some cases water-oil contacts have been identified by a visual comparison of the two curves. Comparison of the Chlorine log with a neutron log is also valuable in interpretation. The role of the neutron log is to give a porosity (which need be approximate only), to indicate formation shaliness and, most important, to identify gas which is generally indistinguishable from oil on the Chlorine log. The Chlorine log should prove most useful in old wells where adequate open-hole logs do not exist, or where saturation conditions in the producing zone have changed. The combination of the Chlorine log with a Cement Bond log and the wireline formation tester should aid materially in successful reworking of such wells.

The effect of boundaries on wave propagation in a liquid-filled porous solid: II. Love waves in a porous layer

Abstract The transcendental equation is derived relating frequency and phase velocity of propagation of Love waves in a porous layer containing a viscous liquid. This equation, being complex, can be satisfied only if the wave number of the motion is complex, indicating that the disturbance is dissipative. The general expression being intractable analytically, an approximate scheme is employed to determine the phase velocity and measure of dissipation valid for porous materials in which the mass (per unit volume of aggregate) of the interstitial liquid is smaller than that of the solid.

The origin of certain chromite deposits of the eastern part of the Bushveld complex

Field relations and petrographic characteristics of chromitite layers (Steelport Main and Leader seams) and the enclosing pyroxenites in a section of the so-called critical zone of the Bushveld complex (South Africa) are reviewed in the light of various modes of origin proposed for the chrome-rich rocks. It is concluded that textural and other features can best be explained by postulating differential mechanical settling of chromite and bronzite crystals controlled by variations in the velocity of currents in the magma chamber, followed by crystallization of interstitial liquid. Some of the chromite evidently crystallized in place; this could be accounted for by resolution of settled crystals.

The reversible and irreversible thickening of stirred partially fused mixtures of RDX and TNT

AbstractConcentrated suspensions of RDX in molten TNT thickened progressively when slowly stirred. The thickening was partly irreversible and accompanied recrystallisation of the RDX. Immobilisation of liquid would be more effective if adjacent grains have plane faces between which it can occur; recrystallisation produced or extended such faces and hence caused increased consistency.The major part of the over‐all thickening was reversible, i.e. increased stirring speeds caused the thickened mixture to become thin again. The reversible thickening was accompanied by the formation of RDX‐aggregates on the paddles of the stirrer and their resistance to subsequent distintegration on entering the zone of shearing between the paddle‐tips and the wall of the container. These aggregates, although relatively poorer in interstitial liquid, could increase consistency because they immobilised liquid between them in this zone until disintegrated. Such immobilisation was indicated by the progressively larger sedimentation volumes given by RDX aggregates deposited from RDX/TNT slurries of increasing consistency.

The layered ultrabasic tocks of Rhum, Inner Hebrides

The layered ultrabasic tocks of Rhum, Inner Hebrides

An Appinitic Facies Associated with Certain Granites in Jersey, Channel Islands

Summary The rocks here referred to as appinites form part of the essentially dioritic facies marginal to both the north-western and south-eastern complexes in Jersey. Mineralogically they are characterized by abundant long prismatic amphiboles, rich in titanium. Many of these contain cores of mica or felsic material, the nature and origin of which are discussed. The country rock commonly occurring in association with the appinitic rocks is dioritic in both complexes; and at Ronez in the north of the island it contains relicts which prove it to be, at least in part, metasomatized gabbro. The diorites and appinites both consist of essentially the same mineral assemblage and, whilst the latter are not metasomatic in the generally accepted sense of the word, there is no doubt that a large proportion of their substance has been derived from gabbro by way of a series of changes initiated by the nearby granites. The changes by which gabbroic material was converted into dioritic have been continued and accentuated, presumably by emanations from the granite, with the local building up of strong flux concentrations, which led to the formation of " pockets " consisting of crystal mush with interstitial liquid. It was from this " magma " that the appinitic rocks crystallized, under essentially pegmatitic conditions. It was demonstrably mobile, and a turbulent fluxional structure is highly characteristic. Textural interpretation receives critical attention in the paper, particularly in so far as it concerns replacement phenomena. The observed changes in mineral contents are consistent with crystallization from a magma, and follow the lines of Bowen's discontinuous reaction series, which must be extended at the low temperature end to include phases usually regarded as secondary, but here unquestionably primary. An unusual feature, occasioned by the special environmental conditions, has been the growth of amphibole and apatite crystals of a hollow-shell type, in which crystallization starts on the outside and progresses towards the centre. In the sequence of paramorphic changes, the inheritance by a later phase of the internal structure of the earlier one which it is replacing, in accordance with the principle of least disturbance of the original Si-0 lattice, is strikingly displayed in these rocks. Problems of classification and nomenclature are involved and receive due attention in the paper.

Societies and Academies

LONDON. Geological Society, April 4.—G. W. Tyrrell: The analcite-syenites and associated rocks of Ayrshire. These rocks occur in differentiated intrusions along with analcite-olivine-dolerites or crinanites, as stratiform bands, schlieren, and veins. The principal occurrence is at Howford Bridge, Mauchline, where analcite-syenite forms a considerable part of the sill. In the remaining three described occurrences (Dippol Burn, Trabboch Burn, and Prestwick) the analcitesyenite is restricted to schlieren and veins. They all belong to the widespread suite of analcite-bearing igneous rocks of late-Carboniferous and Permian age in the west of Scotland. The most noteworthy mineralogical feature is the abundant occurrence of analcite, thomsonite, natrolite, and prehnite, which must be regarded as late primary crystallisations from the magma. A hypothesis for the development of schlieren and veins in the sills by the effects of the varying incidence of the pressure due to the superincumbent column of rock, upon a crystal mesh filled with interstitial liquid, is framed. The liquid is believed to be progressively driven towards the centre of the sill, and also laterally towards those places where the pressure is compensated in various ways, so that free contraction of the crystallising mass can take place.“J. Parkinson: A note on the Pleistocene history of western Buchivacoa (Venezuela). The area consists of alternating estuarine or freshwater false-bedded sandstones, and sandy clays, folded along east-north-easterly axes in many places. Burdigalian and Aquitanian fossils occur in the eroded centres of the folds. There is an unconformity between the Miocene and the overlying strata, which appear to be of Lower or Middle Pliocene age. The Tertiary deposits are covered by Pleistocene pebblebeds. The latter are probably an old sea-beach. Subsequent elevation during a pluvial period allowed of a ‘creep’ of the pebbles northwards. Redeposition in successive stages was effected by eastwardflowing rivers of the Indus type. Since Pliocene times, an elevation of about 1000 feet has taken place along the southern edge of the district.—A. Tindell Hopwood: Gyrinodon quassus, a new genus and species of toxodont from western Buchivacoa (Venezuela): with a note on the reptilian remains by W. E. Swinton. Gyrinodon differs from Toxodon in its more primitive dentition, and in the characters of the skull-cap. It differs from Alitoxodon in the characters of the mandibular symphysis. This is the northernmost locality for toxodonts hitherto recorded in South America. Apparently the toxodonts followed a northward dispersal.

Action of dissolved substances upon the autofermentation of yeast

During experiments upon the permeability of the yeast-cell it was found that, when yeast was immersed in a molar solution of sodium chloride, and allowed to stand at air temperature, the amount of gas produced by autofermentation was considerably greater than that given by a water control. The production of carbon dioxide by autofermentation of yeast is brought about by the action of at least two enzymes. The reserve material of the cell, for the most part glycogen, is first converted by a glycogenase into a sugar, which in turn is fermented by zymase with the production of alcohol and carbon dioxide. As the rate of autofermentation is considerably less than that produced by the same yeast in presence of excess of sugar, it follows that the rate of autofermentation is controlled by the rate of production of sugar within the cell, in other words, by the rate of action of the glycogenase. An increase in the rate of autofermentation, therefore, indicates greater activity of this enzyme within the cell. In order to investigate the action of solutions of various salts upon the rate of autofermentation of yeast, this was ascertained by measuring the volume of carbon dioxide evolved during successive intervals of time by means of the apparatus described by Harden, Thompson, and Young (1). The yeast employed was prepared from top-yeast as obtained from the brewery by pressing out the wort in a small hand press, it having been demonstrated (2) that practically the whole of the interstitial liquid can be removed in this way. A certain weight of such pressed yeast was carefully weighed into each of the fermentation flasks, and treated with a certain volume of the various liquids under experiment, controls being made with water. The liquids were saturated with carbon dioxide at 25°, the temperature of the water-bath.